tain  LftGRIC. 


MODERN 


METHODS 


/ 


UNIV 


CALIFOE1 


EIGHTH  EDITION 
REVISED    TO   DATE 


Published  by  THE  SILVER  MFG.  CO.,  Salem,  Ohio,  U.S.A. 


MODERN 
SILAGE  METHODS 


LATEST  REVISED  EDITION 
WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS 


An  entirely  new  and  practical  work  on  Silos,   their  construction  and  the 

process  of  filling,  to  which  is  added  complete  and  reliable 

information  regarding  Silage  and  its  composition; 

feeding,  and  a  treatise  on  rations,  being  a 


FEEDERS'  AND  DAIRYMEN'S  GUIDE 


PUBLISHED 
AND  COPYRIGHTED  BY 


THE   SILVER    MANUFACTURING    CO. 

SALEM,  OHIO 
y.  s.  A. 

1911   i 


Copyrighted  1911,  by 
THE  SILVER  MANUFACTURING  Co. 


CHICAGO 

B.   CONKEY  COMPANY 
1911 


PREFACE. 


This  book  has  been  written  and  published  for  the  pur- 
pose of  furnishing  our  patrons  and  others  with  accurate 
and  full  information  on  the  subject  of  silo  construction 
and  the  making  of  silage.  It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  au- 
thors to  present  the  subject  in  a  clear  matter-of-fact  man- 
ner, without  flourish  or  rhetoric  or  flight  of  imagination, 
believing  that  the  truth  concerning  the  advantages  of  the 
siloing  system  is  good  enough.  The  testimony  presented, 
which  is  purposely  kept  close  to  the  experience  of  author- 
ities on  feeding  subjects  in  and  outside  of  experiment  sta- 
tions, will  abundantly  prove,  we  believe,  that  the  equip- 
ment of  an  American  dairy  or  stock  farm  is  no  longer 
complete  without  one  or  more  silos  on  it. 

The  new  chapters  on  "The  Summer  Silo,"  "The  Use  of 
Silage  in  Beef  Production,"  and  "Concrete  and  Cement 
Block  Silos"  will  be  found  especially  timely,  and  in  other 
respects  the  book  has  been  brought  up-to-date. 

In  order  that  a  work  of  this  kind  be  accurate  and  reli- 
able, and  bear  the  scrutiny  of  scientific  readers,  the  use 
of  a  number  of  scientific  terms  and  phrases  is  rendered 
necessary,  and  in  order  that  these  may  be  more  readily 
comprehended  by  Agriculturists,  a  comprehensive  glossary 
or  dictionary  of  such  terms  is  included,  following  the  last 
chapter,  which  can  be  referred  to  from  time  to  time,  or 
can  be  studied  previous  to  reading  the  book. 

In  the  compilation  of  certain  parts  of  the  book  we 
have  had  the  valuable  assistance  of  Prof.  Woll,  of  Wis- 
consin Experiment  Station,  author  of  "A  Book  on  Silage" 
and  "A  Handbook  for  Farmers  and  Dairymen."  Free  use 
of  the  former  book  has  been  made  in  the  preparation  of 
this  volume,  as  well  as  of  experiment  station  publications 
treating  the  subject  of  silage. 

Hoping  that  this  latest  revision  of  "Modern  Silage 
Methods"  will  prove  helpful  to  our  patrons,  and  incidentally 
suggest  to  them  that  the  Ohio  Silage  Cutters  and  Blower 
Elevators  are  manufactured  by  us,  we  are, 

Very  truly, 

THE  SILVER  MFG.  CO. 


272207 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


PREFACE   3 

INTRODUCTORY    7-10 

CHAPTER  I. 

Advantages  of  the  Silo — Preservation  of  a  larger  quantity 
of  original  food  value  enabled  by  the  use  of  the  Silo 
than  any  method  known — Losses  of  nutritive  value  in 
dry  curing — Small  losses  in  the  Siloing  process — The 
Silo  furnishes  a  feed  of  uniform  quality — Economy  of 
making — Economy  of  Storage — No  danger  of  rain — No 
danger  of  late  summer  droughts — Food  from  thistles — 
Value  in  intensive  farming 11-22 

CHAPTER  II. 
Summer  Silos. 

Necessary  in  supplementing  summer  pastures  and  in  tiding 
herd  over  period  of  drouth,  heat  and  flies — Avoids  la- 
bor of  soiling  crop  system — Purdue  Station  Experi- 
ments— Comments  by  the  agricultural  press 23-27 

CHAPTER  III. 
Silage  in  Beef  Production. 

A  subititute  for  roots  for  fattening  cattle — Prevents  "burn- 
ing out"  of  steers — 500-ton  silo  for  steers  only — Advan- 
tages to  the  beef  feeder — Experiments  at  the  Ohio 
and  Indiana  Stations — At  the  Kansas  and  Iowa  Sta- 
tions— Experience  of  one  of  largest  beef  cattle  feeders 
in  East — Prof.  Soule's  experiments  in  the  South — Silage 

good  for  stocken 28-41 

4 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.  5 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Silage  System  and  Soil  Fertility. 

Helps  maintain  soil  fertility — Every  crop  grown  robs  soil 
of  fertilizing  elements — Restoration  has  vital  bearing 
on  our  crop  yields — Value  of  barnyard  manure — Every 
farm  a  manure  factory  with  silage — Keeping  fertility 
on  the  farm 42-47 

CHAPTER  V. 
How  to  Build  a  Silo. 

Silos — General  requirements  for  silo  structures — On  the 
size  of  silo  required — On  the  form  of  silos — Relations 
of  horizontal  feeding — Area  and  number  of  cows  kept 
— Location  of  the  silo — Different  types  of  silo  struc- 
tures— Round  wooden  silos — The  silo  roof — Modifica- 
tions of  the  Wisconsin  Silo — Plastered  round  wooden 
Silos — Brick-lined  Silos — Stave  Silos — Cheap  Stave 
Silos— A  modification  of  a  Stave  Silo — Connecting 
round  silos  with  the  barn — Other  forms  of  round  silos — 
Brick  and  stone  Silos — Silos  in  the  barn — Octagonal 
Silos— Cost  and  estimates  for  different  kinds 48-120 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Concrete  or  Cement  Silos. 

"The  silo  of  the  future"  where  permanence  is  desired — 
Possibilities  of  reinforced  concrete — Continuous  hollow 

walls — Importance  of  strong  foundation A  Missouri 

concrete  silo — "Forms"  used  for  monolithic  wall — Ce- 
ment Blocks;  how  made — To  maintain  cement  lining — 
Reinforced  cement  blocks — Cement  block  silos  de- 
scribed   121-132 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Silage  Crops — Indian  Corn — Silos  best  adapted  to  corn 
culture  and  preparation  of  land — Varieties  of  corn  for 
the  silo — Time  of  cutting  corn  for  the  silo — Methods  of 
planting  corn — Other  silage  crops 133-143 


6  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

Filling  the  Silo — Indian  Corn — Siloing  corn  "ears  and  all" 
— The  filling  process — The  proper  distribution  of  cut 
material  in  the  silo — Size  of  cutter  and  power  required 
— Length  of  chain  elevator  required — Directions  for 
operating  "Ohio"  Blower  Cutters — Danger  from  car- 
bonic-acid poisoning  in  silos — Covering  the  siloed  fod- 
der— Use  of  water  in  filling  silos — Clover  for  summer 
silage — Freezing  of  silage 149-166 

CHAPTER  IX. 

How  to  feed  silage — Silage  for  milch  cows — Silage  in  the 
production  of  certified  milk — Silage  for  beef  cattle — 
for  Horses — for  Sheep — for  Swine — Silage  for  poultry 
— Additional  testimony  as  to  the  advantage  of  silage — 
Corn  silage  as  compared  with  root  crops — Corn  silage 
as  compared  with  hay — Corn  silage  compared  with 
fodder  corn  167-189 

CHAPTER  X. 

A  feeder's  guide — Composition  of  the  animal  body — Com- 
position of  feeding  stuffs — Digestibility  of  foods — Rela- 
tive value  of  feeding  stuffs — Feeding  standards — How 
to  figure  out  rations — Grain  mixtures  for  dairy  cows — 
Average  composition  of  Silage  crops  of  different  kinds, 
in  per  cent — Analysis  of  Feeding  stuffs — Ready  refer- 
ence tables  190-215 

CONCLUSION 216 

GLOSSARY    217-219 

INDEX  . .  220-224 


Modern  Silage  Methods. 


INTRODUCTION.    . 

Twenty-five  years  ago  few  farmers  knew  what  a  silo 
was,  and  fewer  still  had  ever  seen  a  silo  or  fed  silage  to 
their  stock.  Today  silos  are  as  common  as  barn  buildings 
In  many  farming  districts  in  this  country,  and  thousands  of 
farmers  would  want  to  quit  farming  if  they  could  not  have 
silage  to  feed  to  their  stock  during  the  larger  portion  of 
the  year.  Twenty-five  years  ago  it  would  have  been  neces- 
sary to  begin  a  book  describing  the  siloing  system  with 
definitions,  what  is  meant  by  silos  and  silage;  now  all 
farmers  who  read  agricultural  papers  or  attend  agricultural 
or  dairy  conventions  are  at  least  familiar  with  these 
words,  even  if  they  do  not  have  a  chance  to  become  famil- 
iar with  the  appearance  and  properties  of  silage.  They 
know  that  a  SILO  is  an  air-tight  structure  used  for  the 
preservation  of  green,  coarse  fodder  in  a  succulent  con- 
dition, and  that  SILAGE  is  the  feed  taken  out  of  a  silo. 

We  shall  later  see  which  crops  are  adapted  for  silage 
making,  but  want  to  state  here  at  the  outset  that  Indian 
corn  is  pre-eminently  the  American  crop  suited  to  be  pre- 
served in  silos,  and  that  this  crop  is  siloed  far  more  than 
all  other  kinds  of  crops  put  together.  When  the  word 
silage  is  mentioned  we,  therefore,  instinctively  think  of 
corn  silage.  We  shall  also  follow  this  plan  in  the  dis- 
cussions in  this  book;  when  only  silage  is  spoken  of  we 
mean  silage  made  from  the  corn  plant;  if  made  from 
other  crops  the  name  of  the  crop  is  always  given,  as 
clover  silage,  peavine  silage,  etc. 

7 


8  INTRODUCTION. 

History  of  the  Silo.  While  the  silo  in  one  form  or 
another  dates  back  to  antiquity,  it  was  not  until  the  latter 
part  of  the  seventies  that  the  building  of  silos  intended 
for  manufacture  of  silage  began  in  this  country.  In 
1882  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  could 
find  only  ninety-one  farmers  in  this  country  who  used  silos. 
During  the  last  twenty-five  years,  however,  silos  have 
gradually  become,  general  in  all  sections  of  the  country 
where  dairying  and  stock-raising  are  important  industries; 
it  is  likely,  if  a  census  were  taken  of  the  number  of  silos 
in  this  country  today,  that  we  would  find  between  a  half 
and  three-fourths  of  a  million  of  them.  The  silo  is  today 
considered  a  necessity  on  thousands  of  dairy  farms,  and  we 
find  most  of  them  in  the  states  that  rank  first  as  dairy 
states,  viz.:  New  York,  Iowa,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Pennsyl- 
vania, etc.  The  farmers  that  have  had  most  experience 
with  silage  are  the  most  enthusiastic  advocates  of  the  silo- 
ing system,  and  the  testimony  of  intelligent  dairymen  all 
over  the  country  is  strongly  in  favor  of  the  silo.  Said  a 
New  York  farmer  recently  in  one  of  our  main  agricultural 
papers:  "I  would  as  soon  try  to  farm  without  a  barn  as 
without  a  silo,"  and  another  wrote,  "I  wouldn't  take  a 
thousand  dollars  for  my  silo  if  I  could  not  replace  it."  The 
well-known  agricultural  writer,  Joseph  E.  Wing,  says:  "No 
stock  feeder  who  grows  corn  can  afford  to  ignore  the 
silo."  "Buff  Jersey,"  an  Illinois  dairy  farmer  and  writer 
on  agricultural  topics,  declares  his  faith  in  silage  as  fol- 
lows: "I  am  fully  satisfied  that  silage  is  a  better  feed, 
and  a  cheaper  one,  than  our  pastures."  Another  writer 
says:  "The  silo  to  my  mind  presents  so  many  advantages 
over  the  system  of  soiling  that  it  is  bound  to  eventually 
do  away  with  the  use  of  soiling  crops."  According  to 
the  Cornell  Experiment  Station,  the  "silo,  especially  to  the 
dairy  farmer,  has  become  an  almost  necessary  adjunct  to 
the  equipment  of  the  farm." 

Our  first  effort  in  writing  this  book  will  be  to  pre- 
sent facts  that  will  back  up  these  statements,  and  show 
the  reader  the  many  advantages  of  the  silo,  over  other 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

systems  of  growing  and  curing  crops  for  the  feeding  of 
farm  animals.  We  shall  show  that  up-to-date  dairy  or 
stock  farming  is  well  nigh  impossible  without  the  aid  of 
a  silo.  The  silo  enables  us  to  feed  live  stock  succulent 
feeds  the  year  around,  and  preserves  the  fodder  in  a  bet- 
ter condition  and  with  less  waste  than  any  other  system 
can.  We  shall  see  the  why  and  wherefore  of  this  in  the 
following  pages,  and  shall  deal  with  the  best  way  of  mak- 
ing and  feeding  silage  to  farm  animals.  We  wish  to  state 
at  the  outset  that  we  do  not  propose  to  indulge  in  .un- 
warranted statements  or  claims  that  will  not  stand  the 
closest  investigation.  In  the  early  days  of  the  history 
of  the  silo  movement  it  was  thought  necessary  to  make 
exaggerated  claims,  but  this  is  no  longer  the  case.  Naked 
facts  are  sufficient  to  secure  for  the  silo  a  permanent 
place  among  the  necessary  equipment  of  a  modern  dairy 
or  stock  farm.  In  discussing  the  silo  we  shall  keep  close 
to  what  has  been  found  out  at  our  experiment  stations, 
and,  we  believe,  shall  be  able  to  prove  to  any  fair-minded 
reader  that  the  silo  is  the  greatest  boon  that  has  come 
to  modern  agriculture  since  the  first  reaper  was  manu- 
factured, and  that  with  competition  and  resulting  low 
prices,  it  will  be  likely  to  become  more  of  a  necessity  to 
our  farmers  in  the  future  than  it  has  been  in  the  past. 
We  aim  to  convince  our  readers  that  the  most  sensible 
thing  they  can  do  is  to  plan  to  build  a  silo  at  once  if  they 
do  not  now  have  one.  It  is  unnecessary  to  argue  with 
those  who  are  already  the  happy  possessors  of  a  silo,  for 
it  is  a  general  experience  where  a  farmer  has  only  pro- 
vided for  immediate  wants  in  building  his  silo  that  he  will 
build  another  as  soon  as  he  has  had  some  experience 
with  silage  and  finds  out  how  his  stock  likes  it,  and 
how  well  they  do  on  it. 

Modern  practice  has  proved  that  no  man  need  say 
"I  cannot  afford  a  silo,"  because  any  farmer  who  is  at 
all  handy  wifh  hammer  and  saw  can  provide  a  silo  large 
enough  for  a  medium-sized  dairy  with  very  little  actual 
outlay  of  money.  And  this  same  built-at-home  silo  will 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

earn  for  its  owner  money  to  build  another,  and  enlarge 
his  herd. 

We  shall  give  directions  for  building  several  kinds 
of  such  silos  on  the  following  pages.  While  they  will 
not  be  apt  to  last  as  long,  and  therefore  are  not  perhaps 
as  economical  in  the  long  run  as  more  substantially-built 
silos,  still  they  do  excellent  service  until  some  experience 
with  making  and  feeding  silage  has  been  obtained,  or 
until  the  farmer  can  afford  to  put  up  a  more  substantial 
structure. 

We  mention  this  fact  here  to  show  farmers  who  may 
be  considering  the  matter  of  building  a  silo,  or  who  may 
be  inclined  to  think  that  the  silo  is  an  expensive  luxury, 
only  for  rich  farmers,  that  the  cost  of  a  silo  need  not 
debar  them  from  the  advantages  of  having  one  on  their 
farm,  and  thus  secure  a  uniform  succulent  feed  for  their 
stock  through  the  whole  winter.  Farmers  who  have  not 
as  yet  informed  themselves  in  regard  to  the  value  of  the 
silo  and  silage  on  dairy  or  stock  farms,  are  respectfully 
asked  to  read  carefully  the  following  statements  of  the 
advantages  of  the  silo  system  over  other  methods  of  pre- 
serving green  forage  for  winter  or  summer  feeding. 

It  has  been  said  that  "Whoever  makes  two  blades  of 
grass  grow  where  but  one  grew  before  is  a  benefactor 
to  mankind."  A  silo  makes  it  possible  to  keep  "two  cows 
where  but  one  was  kept  before,  and  who  would  not  gladly 
double  his  income?  Does  not  this  interest  you? 


CHAPTER   I. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  SILO. 

The  silo  enables  us  to  preserve  a  larger  quantity  of  the 
food  materials  of  the  original  fodder  for  the  feeding  of  farm 
animals  than  is  possible  by  any  other  system  of  preservation 
now  known.  Pasture  grass  is  the  ideal  feed  for  live  stock, 
but  it  is  not  available  more  than  a  few  months  in  the 
year.  The  same  holds  true  with  all  soiling  crops  or  tame 
grasses  as  well.  When  made  into  hay  the  grasses  and 
other  green  crops  lose  some  of  the  food  material  contained 
therein,  both  on  account  of  unavoidable  losses  of  leaves 
and  other  tender  parts,  and  on  account  of  fermentations 
which  take  place  while  the  plants  are  drying  out  or  being 
cured. 

In  cases  of  Indian  corn  the  losses  from  the  latter 
source  are  considerable,  owing  to  the  coarse  stalks  of 
the  plant  and  the  large  number  of  air-cells  in  the  pith 
of  these.  Under  the  best  of  conditions  cured  fodder  corn 
will  lose  at  least  ten  per  cent,  of  its  food  value  when 
cured  in  shocks;  such  a  low  loss  can  only  be  obtained 
when  the  shocks  are  cared  for  under  cover,  or  out  in 
the  field  under  ideal  weather  conditions.  In  ordinary  farm 
practice  the  loss  in  nutritive  value  will  approach  twenty- 
five  per  cent.,  and  will  even  exceed  this  figure  unless 
special  precautions  are  taken  in  handling  the  fodder,  and 
it  is  not  left  exposed  to  all  kinds  of  weather  in  shocks 
in  the  field  through  the  whole  winter.  These  figures 
may  seem  surprisingly  large  to  many  farmers  who  have 
left  fodder  out  all  winter  long,  and  find  the  corn  inside 
the  shock  bright  and  green,  almost  as  it  was  when  put 
ap.  But  appearances  are  deceitful;  if  the  shocks  had 
been  weighed  as  they  were  put  up,  and  again  in  the  late 

11 


12  ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  SILO* 

winter,  another  story  would  be  told,  and  it  would  be 
found  that  the  shocks  only  weighed  anywhere  from  a 
third  to  a  half-  as  much  as  when  they  were  cured  and 
ready  to  be  put  in  the  barn  late  in  the  fall;  if  chemical 
analysis  of  the  corn  in  the  shocks  were  made  late  in  the 
fall,  and  when  taken  down,  it  would  be  found  that  the  de- 
crease in  weight  was  not  caused  by  evaporation  of  water 
from  the  fodder,  but  by  waste  of  food  materials  contained 
therein  from  fermentations,  or  actions  of  enzymes.  (See 
Glossary.) 

The  correctness  of  the  figures  given  above  has  been 
abundantly  proved  by  careful  experiments  conducted  at  a 
number  of  different  experiment  stations,  notably  the  Wis- 
consin, New  Jersey,  Vermont,  Pennsylvania,  and  Colorado 
experiment  stations.  A  summary  of  the  main  work  in 
this  line  is  given  in  Prof.  Woll's  Book  on  Silage.  In  the 
Wisconsin  experiments  there  was  an  average  loss  of  23.8 
per  cent,  in  the  dry  matter  (see  Glossary),  and  24.3  per 
cent,  of  protein,  during  four  different  years,  when  over 
86  tons  of  green  fodder  had  been  put  up  in  shocks  and 
carefully  weighed  and  sampled  at  the  beginning  and  end 
of  the  experiment.  These  shocks  had  been  left  out  for 
different  lengths  of  time,  under  varying  conditions  of 
weather,  and  made  from  different  kinds  of  corn,  so  as  to 
present  a  variety  of  conditions.  The  Colorado  experi- 
ments are  perhaps  the  most  convincing  as  to  the  losses 
vvhich  unavoidably  take  place  in  the  curing  of  Indian  corn 
in  shocks.  The  following  account  is  taken  from  Prof. 
Cook's  report  of  the  experiments.  As  the  conditions  de- 
scribed in  the  investigation  will  apply  to  most  places  on 
our  continent  where  Indian  corn  is  cured  for  fodder,  it 
will  be  well  for  farmers  to  carefully  look  into  the  results 
of  the  experiment. 

"It  is  believed  by  most  farmers  that,  in  the  r^ry  cli- 
mate of  Colorado,  fodder  corn,  where  cut  and  shocked 
in  good  shape,  cures  without  loss  of  feeding  value,  and 
that  the  loss  of  weight  that  occurs  is  merely  due  to  the 
drying  out  of  the  water.  A  test  of  this  question  was  made 


LOSSES   IN  DRY   CURING. 


13 


in  the  fall  of  1893,  and  the  "results  obtained  seemed  to 
indicate  that  fully  a  third  of  the  feeding  value  was  lost 
in  the  curing.  This  result  was  so  surprising  that  the  fig- 
ures were  not  published,  fearing  that  some  error  had  crept 
in,  though  we  could  not  see  where  there  was  the  possibility 
of  a  mistake. 

"In  the  fall  of  1894  the  test  was  repeated  on  a  larger 
scale.  A  lot  of  corn  was  carefully  weighed  and  sampled;, 
[t  was  then  divided  into  three  portions;  one  was  spread 
on  the  ground  in  a  thin  layer,  the  second  part  was  set  up 
in  large  shocks,  containing  about  five  hundred  pounds  of 
green  fodder  in  each,  while  the  rest  was  shocked  in  small 
bundles.  After  remaining  thus  for  some  months,  until 
thoroughly  cured,  the  portions  were  weighed,;  sampled 
and  analyzed  separately.  The  table  gives  the  losses  that 
occurred  in  the  curing. 


Large  Shocks. 

Small  Shocks. 

On  the  Ground. 

Total 
Weight 

Dry 
Matter 

Total 
Weight 

Dry 

Matter 

Total 
Weight 

Dry 

Matter 

When  Shocked  
After  Curing 

Lbs. 

952 
258 
694 
73 

Lbs. 

217 
150 
67 
31 

Lbs. 

294 
64 
230 

78 

Lbs. 

77 
44 
33 
43 

Lbs. 

186 
33 
153 

82 

Lbs. 

42 
19 

23 

55 

Loss  in  \Veisht 

Per  Cent  of  Loss  

"So  far  as  could  be  told  by  the  eye,  there  had  been 
no  loss.  The  fodder  had  cured  in  nice  shape,  and  the  stalks 
on  the  inside  of  the  bundles  retained  their  green  color, 
with  no  sign  of  molding  or  heating.  And  yet  the  large 
shocks  had  lost  31  per  cent,  of  their  dry  matter,  or  feed- 
ing value;  the  small  shocks  43  per  cent,  and  the  corn 
spread  on  the  ground  55  per  cent. 

"On  breaking  oj  cutting  the  stalks  these  losses  were 
explained.  The  juice  was  acid,  and  there  was  a  very 
strong  acid  odor,  showing  that  an  active  fermentation 


14  ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  SILO. 

was  taking  place  in  this  seemingly  dry  fodder.  We  had 
noticed  this  strong  odor  the  fall  before  and  all  through 
the  winter.  When  the  fodder  corn  for  the  steers  is  put 
through  the  feed  cutter  that  same  strong  smell-  is  present. 
"It  can  be  said,  then,  that  the  dryness  of  the  climate 
in  Colorado  does  not  prevent  fodder  corn  from  losing 
a  large  part  of  its  feeding  value  through  fermentation. 
Indeed,  the  loss  from  this  source  is  fully  as  great  as  in 
i;he  damp  climate  in  New  England. 

"As  compared  with  the  losses  by  fermentation  in  the 
silo,  the  cured  fodder  shows  considerably  the  higher  loss  " 
In  experiments  at  the  Wisconsin  station  eleven 
shocks  cured  under  cover  in  the  barn  lost  on  an  average 
over  8  per  cent,  of  dry  matter  and  toward  14  per  cent,  of 
protein.  In  an  experiment  at  the  Maine  station  over  14 
per  cent,  of  dry  matter  was  lost  in  the  process  of  slow 
drying  of  a  large  sample  of  fodder  corn  under  the  most 
favorable  circumstances.  "It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
this  loss  falls  almost  entirely  on  the  nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract, or  carbohydrates  (see  Glossary),  more  than  two- 
l;hirds  of  it  being  actually  accounted  for  by  the  diminished 
percentage  of  sugars." 

Since  such  losses  will  occur  in  fodder  cured  under 
cover  with  all  possible  care,  it  is  evident  that  the  aver- 
age losses  of  dry  matter  in  field-curing  fodder  corn,  given 
in  the  preceding,  by  no  means  can  be  considered  exagger- 
ated. Exposure  to  rain  and  storm,  abrasion  of  dry  leaves 
and  thin  stalks,  and  other  factors  tend  to  diminish  the 
nutritive  value  of  the  fodder,  aside  from  the  losses  from 
fermentations,  so  that  very  often  only  one-half  of  the 
food  materials  originally  present  in  the  fodder  is  left  by 
the  time  it  is  fed  out.  The  remaining  portion  of  the 
fodder  has,  furthermore,  a  lower  digestibility  and  a  lower 
feeding  value  than  the  fodder  corn  when  put  up,  for 
the  reason  that  the  fermentations  occurring  during  the 
curing  process  destroy  the  most  valuable  and  easily 
digestible  part,  i  e.,  the  sugar  and  starch  of  the,  nitrogen- 


THE  SILOING  PROCESS.  15 

free  extract,  which  are  soluble,  or  readily  rendered  sol- 
uble, in  the  process  of  digestion. 

2.  Losses  in  the  Siloing  Process.  As  compared  with 
the  large  losses  in  food  materials  in  field-curing  of  Indian 
corn  there  are  but  comparatively  small  losses  in  the  silo, 
caused  by  fermentation  processes  or  decomposition-  of  the 
living  plant  cells  as  they  are  dying  off.  The  losses  in  this 
case  have  been  repeatedly  determined  by  experiment 
stations,  and,  among  others,  by  those  mentioned  in  the 
preceding.  The  average  losses  of  dry  matter  in  the  fod- 
der corn  during  the  siloing  period  of  four  seasons 
(1887-'91)  as  determined  by  Prof.  Wbll  at  the  Wisconsin 
Experiment  Station  was  about  16  per  cent.  The  silos 
used  in  these  trials,  as  in  case  of  nearly  all  the  early 
experiments  on  this  point,  were  small  and  shallow,  how- 
ever, only  14  feet  deep,  were  rectangular  in  form,  and 
not  always  perfectly  air-tight,  a  most  important  point 
in  silo  construction,  as  we  shall  see,  and  a  portion  of  the 
silage  therefore  came  out  spoilt,  thus  increasing  the 
losses  of  food  materials  in  the  siloing  process.  The 
losses  reported  were,  therefore,  too  great,  and  there  is 
now  an  abundance  of  evidence  at  hand  showing  that  the 
figures  given  are  higher  than  those  found  in  actual  prac- 
tice, and  the  necessary  loss  in  the  silo  comes  consider- 
ably below  that  found  in  the  early  experiments  on  this 
point.  There  are  plenty  of  cases  on  record  showing 
that  ten  per  cent,  represents  the  maximum  loss  of  dry 
matter  in  modern  deep,  well-built  silos.  The  losses  found 
In  siloing  corn  at  a  number  of  experiment  stations  dur- 
ing the  last  ten  years  have  come  at  or  below  this  figure. 
It  is  possible  to  reduce  the  loss  still  farther  by  avoid- 
ing any  spoilt  silage  on  the  surface,  by  beginning  to  feed 
immediately  after  the  filling  of  the  silo,  and  by  feeding 
the  silage  out  rather  rapidly.  Experiments  conducted  on 
a  small  scale  by  Prof.  King  in  1894  gave  losses  of  only 
2  and  3  per  cent,  of  dry  matter,  on  the  strength  of  which 
results,  amongst  others,  he  believes  that  the  necessary 
loss  of  dry  matter  in  the  Silo  need  not  exceed  5  per  cent. 


16  ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  SILO. 

Summarizing  our  considerations  concerning  the  rela- 
tive losses  of  food  materials  in  the  field-curing  and  silo- 
ing of  Indian  corn,  we  may,  therefore,  say  that  far  from 
being  less  economical  than  the  former,  the  silo  is  more 
so,  under  favorable  conditions  for  both  systems,  and  that 
therefore  a  larger  quantity  of  food  materials  is  obtained 
by  filling  the  corn  crop  into  a  silo  than  by  any  other 
method  of  preserving  it  known  at  the  present  time. 

What  has  been  said  in  the  foregoing  in  regard  to 
fodder  corn  applies  equally  well  to  other  crops  put  into 
the  silo.  A  few  words  will  suffice  in  regard  to  two  of 
these,  clover  and  alfalfa.  Only  a  few  accurate .  siloing 
experiments  have  been  conducted  with  clover,  but  enough 
has  been  done  to  show  that  the  necessary  losses  in  silo- 
ing this  crop  do  not  much,  if  any,  exceed  those  of  Indian 
corn.  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  of  the  Rothmasted  Experiment 
Station,  England,  placed  264,318  pounds  of  first  and  sec- 
ond crop  clover  into  one  of  these  stone  silos,  and  took 
out  194,470  pounds  of  good  clover  silage.  Loss  in  weight, 
24.9  per  cent.  This  loss  fell,  however,  largely  on  the 
water  in  the  clover.  The  loss  of  dry  matter  amounted 
to  only  5.1  pep  cent.,  very  nearly  the  same  amount  of  loss 
as  that  which  the  same  experimenter  found  had  taken 
place  in  a  large  rick  of  about  forty  tons  of  hay,  after 
standing  for  two  years.  The  loss  of  protein  in  the  silo 
amounted  to  8.2  per  cent.  In  another  silo  184,9'59  pounds 
of  second-crop  grass  and  second-crop  clover  were  put  in, 
and  170,941  pounds  were  taken  out.  Loss  in  gross  weight, 
7.6  per  cent;  loss  of  dry  matter,  9.7  per  cent.;  of  crude 
protein,  7.8  per  cent. 

In  a  siloing  experiment  with  clover,  conducted  at  the 
Wisconsin  Station,  on  a  smaller  scale,  Mr.  P.  G.  Short 
obtained  the  following  results:  Clover  put  into  the  silo, 
12,279  pounds;  silage  taken  out,  9,283  pounds;  loss,  24.4 
per  cent;  loss  of  dry  matter,  15.4  per  cent.;  of  protein, 
12.7  per  cent. 

There  is  nothing  in  any  of  these  figures  to  argue 
against  the  siloing  of  green  clover  as  an  economical  praf 


THE  SILOING  PROCESS.  17 

tice.  On  the  other  hand,  we  conclude  that  this  method 
of  preserving  the  clover  crop  is  highly  valuable,  and,  in 
most  cases,  to  be  preferred  to  making  hay  of  the  crop. 

No  extended  investigation  has  been  made  as  to  the 
losses  sustained  in  the  siloing  of  alfalfa,  but  there  can  be 
little  doubt  but  that  they  are  considerably  smaller  than 
In  making  alfalfa  hay,  if  proper  precautions  guarding 
against  unnecessary  losses  in  the  silo  are  taken.  Accord- 
ing to  the  testimony  of  Professor  Headden  of  the  Colo- 
rado Experiment  Station,  the  minimum  loss  from  the  fall- 
ing off  of  leaves  and  stems  in  successful  alfalfa  hay  mak- 
ing amounts  to  from  15  to  20  per  cent.,  and  in  cases 
where  the  conditions  have  been  unfavorable,  to  as  much 
as  60  and  even  66  per  cent,  of  the  hay  crop.  Aside  from 
the  losses  sustained  through  abrasion,  rain  storms,  when 
these  occur,  may  reduce  the  value  of  the  hay  one-half. 
The  losses  from  either  of  these  sources  are  avoided  in 
preserving  the  crop  in  the  silo,  and  in  their  place  a  small 
loss  through  fermentation  occurs,  under  ordinary  favor- 
able conditions,  amounting  to  about  10  per  cent,  or  less. 

There  is  this  further  advantage  to  be  considered 
when  the  question  of  relative  losses  in  the  silo  and  in 
hay-making  or  field-curing  green  forage,  that  hay  or  corn 
fodder,  whether  in  shocks  or  in  the  field  or  stored  under 
shelter,  gets  poorer  and  poorer  the  longer  it  is  kept,  as 
the  processes  of  decomposition  are  going  on  all  the 
time;  in  the  silo,  on  the  other  hand,  the  loss  in  food  sub- 
stances is  not  appreciably  larger  six  months  after  the  silo 
was  filled  than  it  is  one  month  after,  because  the  air 
Is  shut  out,  so  that  the  farmer  who  puts  up  a  lot  of  fodder 
corn  for  silage  in  the  fall  can  have  as  much  and  as  val- 
uable feed  for  his  stock  in  the  spring,  or  in  fact,  the  fol- 
lowing summer  or  fall,  as  he  would  have  if  he  proceeded 
to  feed  out  all  the  silage  at  once. 

"Generally    speaking,    3    tons    of   silage    are    equal    In 

feeding  value  to  one  ton  of  hay.    On  this  basis  a  much 

larger  amount  of  digestible  food  can  be  secured  from  an 

acre  of  silage  corn  than  from  an  acre  of  hay.    The  food 

2 


18  ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  SILO. 

equivalent  of  4  tons  of  hay  per  acre  can  easily  be  pro- 
duced on  an  acre  of  land  planted  to  corn." — (Plumb.) 

3.  Succulence.     Succulent  food   is  Nature's  food.     We 
all  know  the  difference  between  a  juicy,  ripe  apple  and 
the  green  dried  fruit.   In  the  drying  of  fruit  as  well  as  of 
green  fodder  water  is  the  main  component  taken  away; 
with  it,  however,  go  certain  flavoring  matters  that  do  not 
weigh   much    in    the    chemist's    balance,    but   are,   of    the 
greatest  importance  in  rendering  the   food   material   pal- 
atable.   It  is  these  same  flavoring  substances  which  are 
washed   out   of   the   hay   with   heavy   rains,   and   renders 
such  hay  of  inferior  value,  often  no  better  than  so  much 
straw,   not  because   it  does  not  contain  nearly  as  much 
food  substances,  like  protein,  fat,  starch,  sugar,  etc.  (see 
Glossary),    but    because    of    the    substances    that    render 
day  palatable  having  been  largely  removed  by  the  rain. 

The  influence  of  well-preserved  silage  on  the  diges- 
tion and  general  health  of  animals  is  very  beneficial,  ac- 
cording to  the  unanimous  testimony  of  good  authorities. 
It  is  a  mild  laxative,  and  acts  in  this  way  very  similarly 
to  green  fodders.  The  good  accounts  reported  of  the  pre- 
vention of  milk  fever  by  the  feeding  of  silage  are  ex- 
plained by  the  laxative  influence  of  the  feed. 

4.  Uniformity.     The  silo  furnishes  a  feed   of  uniform 
quality,  and  always  near  at  hand,  available  at  any  time 
during  the  whole  year  or  winter.   No  need  of  fighting  thte 
elements,  or  wading  through  snow  or  mud  to  haul  it  from 
the  field;   once  in  the  silo  the  hard  work  is  over,  and  the 
farmer  can  rest  easy  as  to  the  supply  of  succulent  rough- 
age  for  his   stock   during  the   winter.    An  ample   supply 
of  succulent  feed  is  of  advantage  to  all  classes  of  ani- 
mals, but  perhaps  particularly  so  in  case  of  dairy  cows 
and   sheep,   since   these  animals   are   especially   sensitive 
to  sudden  changes  in  the  feed.    Also,  stock  raisers  value 
silage  highly  on  this  account,  for  silage  is  of  special  yalue 
for  feeding  preparatory  to  turning  cattle  on  to  the  watery 
pasture   grass   in  the  spring.   The  loss  in  the  weight  of 
cattle  on  being  let  out  on  pasture  in  spring,  is  often  so 


ECONOMY  OF  SILAGE.  19 

great  that  it  takes  them  a  couple  of  weeks  to  get  back 
where  they  were  when  turned  out.  When  let  out  in  the 
spring,  steers  will  be  apt  to  lose  weight,  no  matter  whether 
silage  or  dry  feed  has  been  fed,  unless  they  are  fed  some 
grain  during  the  first  week  or  two  after  they  are  turned 
out.  For  more  detailed  information  regarding  the  feeding 
of  silage  for  beef  production,  see  chapter  3,  page  28. 

5.  Economy    of   Storage.     Less    room   is   required   for 
the  storage  in  a  silo  of  the  product  from  an  acre  of  land 
than  in  cured  condition  in  a  barn.    A  ton  of  hay  stored 
in  the  mow  will  fill  a  space  of  at  least  400  cubic  feet;  a 
ton  of  silage,  a  space  of  about  50  cubic  feet.    Considering 
the  dry  matter  contained  in  both  feeds  we  have  found  that 
8,000  pounds  of  silage  contains  about  as  much  dry  matter 
as  2,323  pounds  of  hay,  or  160  against  465  cubic  feet,  that 
is,  it  takes   nearly   three   times   as   much   room   to   store 
the  same  quantity  of  food  materials  in  hay  as  in  silage. 
In  case  of  field-cured  fodder  corn,  the  comparison  comes 
out   still   more   in   favor   of  the   silo,   on   account  of   the 
greater  difficulty  in  preserving  the  thick  cornstalks  from 
heating   when   placed   under   shelter.     According   to    Pro- 
fessor Alvord,  an  acre  of  corn,  field-cured,  stored  in  the 
most  compact  manner  possible,  will  occupy  a  space  ten 
times  as  great  as  in  the  form  of  silage.    While  hay  will 
contain  about  86   per   cent,  of  dry  matter,   cured   fodder 
corn  often  does  not  contain  more  than  60  and  sometimes 
only  50  per  cent,   of  dry  matter;    the  quantities  of  food 
material   in   fodder   corn   that   can   be   stored   in   a  given 
space  are,  therefore,  greatly  smaller  than  in  case  of  hay, 
and  consequently,  still  smaller  than  in  case  of  silage. 

Since  smaller  barns  may  be  built  when  silage  is  fed, 
there  is  less  danger  of  fire,  thus  decreasing  the  cost  of 
insurance. 

6.  No    Danger   of    Rain.     Rainy    weather   is    a    disad- 
vantage in  filling  silos  as  in  most  other  farm  operations, 
but  when  the  silo  is  once  filled,  the  fodder  is  safe,  and  the 
farmer    is    independent    of    the    weather    throughout    the 
season. 


20  ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  SILO. 

If  the  corn. has  suffered  from  drought  and  heat  during 
the  fall  months,  it  is  quite  essential  to  wet  the  corn  either 
as  it  goes  into  the  silo,  or  when  this  has  all  been  filled,  in 
order  to  secure  a  good  quality  of  silage;  and  unless  the 
corn  is  very  green  when  it  goes  into  the  silo,  the  addi- 
tion of  water,  or  water  on  the  corn  from  rain  or  dew,  will 
do  no  harm.  If  the  corn  is  too  dry  when  put  into  the  silo, 
the  result  will  be  dry  mold,  which  is  prevented  by  the 
addition  of  the  water,  which  replaces  that  which  has  dried 
out  previous  to  filling  if  this  has  been  delayed. 

A  common  practice  among  successful  siloists  is  to 
fill  the  silo  when  the  lower  leaves  of  the  standing  corn 
have  dried  up  about  half  way  to  the  ears.  Generally,  the 
corn  will  be  in  about  the  proper  condition  at  that  time, 
and  there  will  still  be  moisture  enough  left  in  the  plants 
eo  that  the  silage  will  come  out  in  first-class  condition. 

There  must  be  moisture  enough* in  the  corn  at  time 
of  filling  the  silo,  so  that  the  heating  processes,  which  take 
place  soon  after,  and  which  expel  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  moisture,  can  take  place,  and  still  leave  the  corn 
moist  after  cooling,  when  the  silage  will  remain  in  prac- 
tically a  uniform  condition  for  several  years  if  left 
undisturbed.  But  if,  on  account  of  over-ripeness,  frosts,  or 
excessive  drought,  the  corn  is  drier  than  stated,  it  should 
be  made  quite  wet  as  stated  above,  and  there  is  little 
danger  of  getting  it  too  wet.  The  writer  has  filled  silo 
with  husked  cbrn  fodder  about  Christmas,  and  as  the 
fodder  was  thoroughly  dried,  a  ^-inch  pipe  was  connected 
with  an  overhead  tank  in  the  barn  and  arranged  to  dis- 
charge into  the  carrier  of  the  cutter  as  the  cutting  took 
place,  a  No.  18  Ohio  cutter  being  used  for  that  purpose. 
Although  the  full  stream  was  discharged,  and  with  con- 
siderable force,  on  account  of  the  elevation  of  the  tank, 
and  the  cut  fodder  in  the  silo  still  further  wet  on  top  with 
a  long  hose  attached  to  a  wind  force  pump,  it  was  found, 
on  opening  the  silo  a  month  later,  that  none  too  much 
water  had  been  used;  the  fodder  silage  came  out  in  good, 
condition,  was  eaten  greedily  by  the  milch  cows,  and 


ECONOMY  OF  SILAGE.  21 

was  much  more  valuable  than  if  it  had  been  fed  dry  from 
the  field. 

Where  haymaking  is  precluded,  as  is  sometimes  the 
case  with  second-crop  clover,  rowen,  etc.,  on  account  of 
rainy  weather  late  in  the  season  the  silo  will  further- 
more preserve  the  crop,  so  that  the  farmer  may  derive 
full  benefit  from  it  in  feeding  it  to  his  stock.  Frosted 
corn  can  also  be  preserved  in  the  silo,  and  will  come  out 
a  very  fair  quality  of  silage  if  well  watered  as  referred  to 
above. 

7.  No   danger    of    Late    Summer    Droughts.     By   using 
the  silo  with  clover  or  other  green  summer  crops,  early 
in  the  season,  a  valuable  succulent  feed  will  be  at  hand 
at  a  time  when  pasture  in  most  regions  is  apt  to  give 
out;    then  again,  the  silo  may  be  filled  with  corn  when 
this  is  in  the  roasting-ear  stage,  and  the  land  thus  en- 
tirely cleared  earlier  than  when  the  corn  is  left  to  ma- 
ture and  the  corn  fodder  shocked  on  the  land,  making  it 
possible   to   finish   fall   plowing   sooner   and   to   seed   the 
land  down  to  grass  or  winter  grain. 

8.  Food    from    Thistles.     Crops    unfit    for   haymaking 
may  be  preserved  in  the  silo  and  changed  into  a  palatable 
food.    This  is  not  of  the  importance  in  this  land  of  plenty 
of  ours   that  it  is,   or   occasionally  has   been   elsewhere, 
Under  silage  crops  are  included  a  number  of  crops  which 
could  not  be  used  as  cattle  food  in  any  other  form  than 
this,  as  ferns,  thistles,  all  kinds  of  weeds,  etc.    In  case 
of  fodder  famine  the  silo  may  thus  help  the  farmer  to  carry 
his   cattle  through  the  winter. 

9.  Value   in    Intensive   Farming.     More   cattle   can  be 
kept  on  a  certain  area  of  land  when  silage  is  fed,  thaai 
Is  otherwise  the  case.    The  silo  in  this  respect  furnishes 
a  similar  advantage  over  field-curing  fodders,  as  does  the 
Boiling  system  over  that  of  pasturing  cattle;   in  both  the 
siloing  and  soiling  system  there  is  no  waste  of  feed,  all 
food  grown  on  the  land  being  utilized  for  the  feeding  of 
farm  animals,  except  a  small  unavoidable  loss  in  case  of 


22  ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  SILO. 

the  siloing  system  incurred  by  the  fermentation  processes 
taking  place  in  the  silo. 

Pasturing  cattle  is  an  expensive  method  of  feeding, 
as  far  as  the  use  of  the  land  goes,  and  can  only  be  prac- 
ticed to  advantage  where  this  is  cheap.  As  the  land  in- 
creases in  value,  more  stock  must  be  kept  on  the  same 
area  in  order  to  correspondingly  increase  the  profits  from 
the  land.  The  silo  here  comes  in  as  a  material  aid,  and 
by  its  adoption,  either  alone  or  in  connection  with  the 
soiling  system,  it  will  be  possible  to  keep  at  least  twice 
the  number  of  animals  on  the  land  that  can  be  done 
under  the  more  primitive  system  of  pasturing  and  feeding 
dry  feeds  during  the  winter.  The  experience  of  Goffart,  "the 
Father  of  Modern  Silage,"  on  this  point  is  characteristic. 
On  his  farm  of  less  than  eighty-six  acres  at  Burtin,  France, 
he  kept  a  herd  of  sixty  cattle,  besides  fattening  a  num- 
ber of  steers  during  the  winter,  and  eye-witnesses  assure 
us  that  he  had  ample  feed  on  hand  to  keep  one  hundred 
head  of  cattle  the  year  around. 

We  might  go  on  and  enumerate  many  other  points 
in  which  the  siloing  process  has  decidedly  the  advantage 
over  the  method  of  field-curing  fodder  or  haymaking;  but 
it  is  hardly  necessary.  The  points  given  in  the  preceding 
will  convince  any  person  open  to  conviction,  of  the  supe- 
riority of  the  silo  on  stock  or  dairy  farms.  As  we  proceed 
with  our  discussion  we  shall  have  occasion  to  refer  to  sev- 
eral points  in  favor  of  silage  as  compared  with  dry  feed, 
which  have  not  already  been  touched  upon.  We  shall  now, 
first  of  all,  however,  discuss  the  Summer  Silo;  also  the 
wonderful  progress  of  the  use  of  silage  in  beef  production, 
and  of  its  help  in  maintaining  soil  fertility.  Afterwards, 
we  will  proceed  to  explain  the  method  of  building  Silos 
and  then  discuss  the  subject  of  making  and  feeding  silage. 


CHAPTER^!!. 

THE  SUMMER  SILO. 

The  summer  silo  is  fast  becoming  popular  and  even 
necessary  because  of  its  splendid  aid  in  supplementing 
summer  pastures  and  tiding  the  herd  over  the  period  of 
drouth,  heat  and  flies.  Experiment  Stations  that  have 
studied  the  subject,  strongly  advocate  its  use  and  some 
of  the  leading  agricultural  papers  have  been  speaking  in 
no  uncertain  voice  as  to  its  advantages. 

"The  summer  silo  is  as  certain  to  assert  its  value  as 
American  agriculture  is  certain  to  go  forward  rather  than 
backward,"  says  Breeder's  Gazette  of  Chicago.  "Pasture 
as  at  present  used — or  abused — is  a  broken  reed.  An  over- 
grazed acre  is  the  costliest  acre  that  the  farmer  supports. 
Even  in  normal  seasons  grass  rests  in  the  summer  time, 
and  unless  a  fall  and  winter  pasture  is  laid  by,  little  good 
i#  derived  from  grass  lands  after  the  flush  of  spring.  The 
eilo  supplements  pastures,  and  carries  the  burden  of  the 
winter's  feeding." 

Following  the  same  line  of  thought  Purdue  Experiment 
Station  Bulletin  No.  13  says: 

"Too  much  dependence  is  usually  placed  upon  pasture 
for  summer  feeding.  Pasturing  high  priced  land  is  un- 
profitable in  these  times.  Few  stop  to  consider  the  de- 
structive effects  of  trampling,  that,  while  a  cow  is  taking 
one  bite  of  grass,  she  is  perhaps  soiling  or  trampling  the 
life  out  of  four  others.  If  sufficient  silage  is  put  up  each 
year  part  can  well  be  used  for  summer  feeding,  which 
will  be  found  less  laborious  than  the  daily  hauling  of 
green  crops  for  the  herd.  The  herd  must  not  be  allowed 
to  shrink  in  flow  unduly,  as  it  is  practically  impossible 
to  bring  them  back  during  the  same  lactation.  The 
young  stock,  destined  for  future  producers,  must  not  be 
neglected  on  short  pasture,  for  the  labor  and  expense  of 

23 


24  THE  SUMMER  SILO. 

supplying  their  needs  as  above  indicated  for  the  herd,  is 
insignificant  compared  with  the  importance  of  their  unim- 
paired growth." 

There  are  many  intelligent  farmers  who  are  providing 
a  succession  of  fresh  soiling  crops  and  using  them  to 
great  advantage  in  helping  out  short  pastures.  "But," 
says  Professor  Frazer  of  the  Illinois  Station,  "there  is 
necessarily  much  labor  attached  to  preparing  the  ground, 
planting,  raising,  and  harvesting  the  common  crops  used 
for  this  purpose.  There  is  usually  much  loss  in  being 
obliged  to  feed  these  crops  before  they  are  mature  and 
after  they  are  overripe.  And  for  the  farmer  who  can 
make  the  larger  investment,  the  most  practical  way  of 
all  to  provide  green  feed  for  summer  drouth  is  to  fill  a 
small  silo  with  corn  silage.  It  not  only  saves  the  labor 
and  inconvenience  in  the  putting  in  and  cultivation  of 
small  patches  of  different  kinds  of  crops,  but  also  in  har- 
vesting from  day  to  day  in  a  busy  season  of  the  year. 

"These  soiling  crops  can  be  dispensed  with  and  all 
the  feed  raised  from  one  planting  in  one  field  in  the  shape 
of  corn.  The  whole  field  of^corn  for  the  silo  may  be  cut 
at  just  the  right  stage  of  maturity  when  the  most  nutri- 
ment can  be  secured  in  the  best  possible  condition  of 
feeding.  It  also  avoids  the  possibility  of  the  soiling  crops 
failing  to  ripen  at  .the  exact  period  when  the  drouth  hap- 
pens to  strike  the  pasture.  For  the  silo  may  be  opened 
whenever  the  pasture  fails,  regardless  of  the  date,  and  the 
silage  will  remain  in  the  best  condition  as  long  as  needed. 
When  the  pasture  supplies  enough  feed  again,  what  is 
left  in  the  silo  may  be  covered  over  and  thus  preserved 
without  waste,  and  added  to  when  refilling  the  silo  for 
winter  use." 

Further  evidence  comes  from  the  Purdue  Station.  Prof. 
Skinner  writes: 

"Many  successful  farmers  with  limited  areas  of  pasture 
make  a  practice  of  filling  a  small  silo  for  summer  use.  It 
has  been  well  established  that  silage  properly  stored  in 
a  good  silo  when  the  corn  or  other  crop  is  in  the  most  de- 


SUMMER  FEEDING.  25 

Birable  condition,  will  keep  in  good  condition  for  several 
years.  Many  foresighted  men  taking  advantage  of  this  fact 
plan  to  have  silage  on  hand  the  year  around.  They  are 
thus  prepared  for  any  unusual  conditions  such  as  drouth, 
scant  pasture,  excessively  long  winters,  and  it  is  altogether 
practical  and  profitable.  It  is  desirable  to  have  a  silo  of 
relatively  small  diameter  for  summer  feeding  as  it  is 
necessary  to  feed  considerable  amount  from  off  the  top 
of  the  silage  each  day  in  order  to  keep  it  from  moulding 
during  the  hot,  damp  weather. 

There  are  three  silos  on  the  university  farm  and  it  is 
our  aim  to  avoid  having  all  these  empty  at  the  same  time. 
A  limited  farm,  greatly  overstocked,  makes  it  necessary 
to  supplement  the  pastures  every  year,  and  while  soiling 
crops  are  grown  in  abundance  they  cannot  be  relied  upon 
because  of  the  gravelly  nature  of  the  sub-soil  underlying 
the  farm,  which  means  longer  or  shorter  periods  of  drouth 
annually. 

It  would  be  absolutely  impossible  to  maintain  the  num- 
ber of  animals  on  the  college  farm  that  we  are  successfully 
carrying  without  the  silage  to  supplement  our  pastures 
and  soiling  crops.  Many  Indiana  men  have  come  to  look 
on  the  silo  as  quite  as  important  in  supplementing  the 
pastures  as  it  is  in  furnishing  succulence  during  the  winter 
season." 

The  dry  pastures  and  burned-up  hillsides  following  the 
drouth  of  1910  made  a  very  strong  impression  as  to  the 
importance  of  having  good  summer  feeding.  It  was  an 
eloquent  though  severe  plea  for  the  summer  silo  and  led 
to  some  splendid  testimony  in  its  favor.  The  drouth  "cut 
down  the  milk  flow  in  most  of  the  herds  nearly  50  per 
cent.  Not  one  farmer  in  a  hundred  had  provided  for  this 
emergency  by  a  good  supply  of  succulent  food  that  would 
make  milk.  It  is  the  same  old  story  over  again.  It  seems 
to  take  a  tremendous  lot  of  pounding  .on  the  part  of  Provi- 
dence, to  get  it  into  farmers'  heads  that  a  summer  silo  is 
a  grand  thing.  The  Hoard's  Dairyman  herd  of  cows  had 
50  tons  or  more  of  nice  corn  ensilage  to  turn  to  when 
feed  grew  short  and  they  have  rolled  out  the  milk  nicely 
right  along.  Besides,  they  will  keep  at  it.  There  is  noth- 
ing like  a  supply  of  ensilage  for  summer  use.  It  is  close 
by  and  handy  to  the  stable  for  use,  when  you  want  it. 


26  THE  SUMMER  SILO. 

And  furthermore  it  will  produce  more  milk  than  any  other 
kind  of  soiling  feed." 

This  is  the  experience  of  Wisconsin  experimenters, 
who  find  that  silage  holds  milk-flow  during  drouth  even 
better  than  soiling.  It  is  rational  that  it  should. 

The  substance  of  a  strong  editorial  in  Wallace's  Farmer, 
while  referring  particularly  to  the  lesson  of  the  1910 
drouth,  applies  with  equal  force  wherever  pasture  is  used 
or  cattle  are  fed.  It  is  worth  quoting  here: 

"The  question  we  are  constantly  asked  is:  'Will  silage 
keep  through  the  summer?'  We  are  glad  to  be  able  to  give 
a  direct  answer  to  this,  not  theoretically,  but  from  per- 
sonal experience.  We  built  a  silo  on  one  of  the  Wallace 
farms  and  filled  it  in  1908,  and  made  the  mistake  of  build- 
ing it  too  large.  During  the  winter  of  1908-9  the  silage 
was  not  all  used.  Last  fall  we  put  in  new  silage  on  top  of 
the  old,  and  during  the  winter  used  out  of  the  new  silage, 
leaving  the  unused  remainder  in  the  bottom.  We  are  now 
feeding  that  silage,  and  the  man  in  charge,  an  experienced 
dairyman,  tells  us  that  after  the  waste  on  top  was-  re- 
moved, this  two-year-old  silage  is  as  good  as  any  he  ever 
used;  that  the  cattle  eat  it  as  readily  as  anything  and 
eat  more  of  it  than  they  did  during  the  winter. 

"This  is  in  entire  harmony  with  every  farmer  we  ever 
heard  of  who  uses  summer  silage.  If  silage  will  keep  two 
years  without  any  waste  except  on  the  exposed  portion 
of  the  surface,  then  it  will  certainly  keep  one. 

"Some  people  say:  'We  may  not  have  another  summer 
like  this.'  To  this  we  reply  that  a  period  of  short  pastures 
during  July  and  August  is  the  rule  in  all  the  corn  belt 
states,  and  lush  grass  at  this  season  of  the  year  is  a  rare 
exception.  Remember  that  seasons  come  in  cycles  of  un- 
known duration,  and  the  time  of  their  coming  is  uncertain; 
that  it  always  has  been  so,  and  it  is  safe  to  assume  that 
they  always  will  until  the  Creator  sees  fit  to  change  his 
method  of  watering  the  earth.  Therefore,  well-made  silage 
in  a  good  silo  is  just  as  staple  as  old  wheat  in  the  mill. 
There  will  be  a  waste  of  several  inches  on  the  surface, 
just  as  there  is  waste  of  several  inches  on  the  surface 
of  the  hay  stack  or  shock  of  corn  fodder;  but  a  man  can 
afford  that  waste,  if  he  has  the  assurance  that  his  cows 
will  not  fail  in  their  milk  or  his  cattle  lose  flesh,  even  if 
there  should  be  little  or  no  rain  for  thirty  or  sixty  days. 
When  you  put  up  a  silo  for  summer  use,  you  are  going 


.      SUMMER  FEEDING.  27 

into  a  perfectly  safe  proposition,  provided,  of  course,  you 
build  it  right,  and  fill  it  properly." 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  less  silage  will  naturally 
be  fed  in  summer  than  in  winter  and  in  order  to  keep  the 
surface  in  fairly  good  condition,  at  least  three  inches  of 
silage  should  be  taken  off  daily,  where  two  inches  suffice 
in  the  winter.  It  will  be  found  advisable  therefore  in  building 
the  summer  silo  to  keep  the  diameter  proportionately 
smaller. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  USE  OF  SELAGE  IN  BEEF 
PRODUCTION. 

In  his  "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  published  some  years  ago, 
Prof.  Henry  says  in  one  paragraph,  with  regard  to  feeding 
silage  to  beef  cattle: 

"Because  of  its  succulence  and  palatability,  this  for- 
age is  recommended  as  a  substitute  for  roots  for  fattening 
cattle."  In  another  paragraph: 

"If  the  stockman  desires  a  cheap,  succulent  feed  for 
his  cattle  in  the  winter  time,  he  will  find  it  in  corn  silage. 
The  same  quantity  of  nutriment  that  a  root  crop  yields 
can  be  produced  more  economically  in  corn  forage  stored 
in  the  shape  of  silage,  and  this  article  can  be  fed  with 
satisfaction  to  steers  during  the  early  stages  of  fattening. 
At  first  as  much  as  forty  or  fifty  pounds  of  silage  may  be 
given  daily  to  each  steer;  when  the  full  grain  feeding 
period  arrives,  let  the  allowance  be  cut  down  to  25  or  30 
pounds  per  day.  A  limited  use  of  this  feed  will  keep  the 
system  cool  and  the  appetite  vigorous." 

The  same  writer  is  also  authority  for  the  statement 
that  the  best  and  most  economical  way  to  prevent  the 
"burning  out"  of  steers  being  well  fattened  on  corn,  was 
to  feed  ensilage  with  the  corn. 

Accumulating  experience  in  many  parts  of  the  country 
covering  a  number  of  years  indicates  that  Prof.  Henry 
was  right,  and  it  strongly  approves  the  use  of  silage  in 
maintaining  beef  herds  and  in  fattening  steers.  In  the 
minds  of  many  farmers,  the  dairyman  has  long  held  a 
monopoly  on  the  profitable  use  of  this  succulent  food,  and 
it  is  true  that  in  cheapening  production  of  dairy  products 
and  in  maintaining  the  milk  flow  and  the  perfect  condi- 
tion of  his  cows  in  those  months  when  fresh  grass  is  not 
to  be  had  for  them,  the  silage  system  has  reached  its 
highest  development.  Each  year,  however,  has  seen  a 

28 


SILAGE  FOR  STEER  FEEDING.  29 

steady  growth  of  sentiment  in  progressive  stock-raising 
communities  favorable  to  a  more  profitable  use  of  corn 
fodder,  and  today  many  of  the  most  prominent  beef  cattle 
breeders  and  feeders  are  among  the  foremost  users  of 
silage  for  feeding  purposes. 

It  is  no  secret  that  a  prejudice  has  existed  against 
silage  in  feeding  circles.  But  the  astonishing  results 
achieved  by  every  doubter  who  tried  the  experiment  is 
"fact-evidence"  of  the  most  weighty  nature  and  is  serving 
as  a  strong  weapon  against  such  prejudice. 

One  of  the  biggest  and  most  substantial  silos  in  Iowa 
was  erected  in  the  fall  of  1910  in  Cherokee  County,  near 
Quimby,  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  state.  It  is  fifty 
feet  high,  twenty-six  feet  across  and  will  hold  approxi- 
mately 500  tons  of  silage.  It  is  built  of  cement  blocks  and 
was  erected  for  steer  feeding  purposes  exclusively. 

Many  Experiment  Stations  have  for  some  time  been 
carrying  on  experiments  to  show  the  comparative  value 
of  silage  and  other  feeds,  and  these  have  very  generally 
resulted  with  credit  to  corn  silage,  as  an  economical  and 
suitable  feed  for  steer's. 

Prof.  Herbert  W.  Mumford  of  the  Illinois  College  of 
Agriculture,  Urbana,  in  a  recent  article  calls  attention 
to  the  increasing  interest  in  corn  silage  in  connection  with 
the  feeding  of  beef  cattle.  The  silo  is  today  an  essential 
feature  in  the  successful  dairyman's  equipment  but  its 
adoption  by  cattle  feeders  has  been  noticeably  slower. 
Mr.  Mumford  says  that  "This  is  undoubtedly  partly  due 
to  the  fact  that  dairying  more  naturally  lends  itself  to 
intensive  methods  while  beef  production  has  been  more 
universally  profitable  when  pursued  in  a  large  way  by 
more  or  less  extensive  systems  of  farming.  It  is  possible, 
too,  that  the  cattle  feeder  has  expected  too  much  of  silage 
and  has  confined  the  cattle  too  largely  upon  It.  It  is 
growing  in  favor  among  the  beef  producers  and  we  confi- 
dently believe  that  it  hag  a  large  place  in  the  cattle  feed- 
Ing  of  the  future  In  the  corn  belt. 


30  SILAGE    IN   BEEP   PRODUCTION. 


It  furnishes  the  best  means  of  storing  the  entire  corn  crop, 
a  part  of  which  is  now  only  partially  utilized  in  the  corn 
belt,  with  minimum  waste.  Experiment  stations  have  been 
gradually  but  surely  teaching  us  its  usefulness  in  the 
feeding  of  beef  cattle.  Practical  feeders  here  and  there 
have  been  carefully  trying  it  out,  and  with  but  very  few 
exceptions  where  the  beef  producer  has  erected  a  silo, 
filled  it  with  corn  and  fed  it  out  to  his  beef  cattle  he  has 
become  a  silage-for-beef-cattle  convert. 

Silage  is  undoubtedly  of  especial  value  in  the  feeding 
of  beef  breeding  cows  and  in  the  wintering  of  calves 
and  young  cattle  intended  for  beef  production.  The 
Illinois  experiment  station  has  determined  the  eco- 
nomic importance  of  the  silo  in  beef  production  in  the 
state  when  used  in  connection  with  the  feeding  of  beef 
cows  and  young  cattle.  This  importance  might  be  briefly 
stated  as  follows: 

"Corn  silage  when  supplemented  with  oats  and  hay, 
used  for  wintering  calves  intended  for  beef  production, 
will  produce  thirty-five  pounds  more  gain  per  steer  during 
the  season  at  the  same  cost  of  ration  than  when  shock 
corn  similarly  supplemented  is  fed.  This  extra  gain  is 
worth  5  cents  per  pound,  or  $1.75  per  calf.  There  are 
over  700,000  calves  wintered  in  Illinois  each  year. 

"It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  cattle  feeders 
who  are  apparently  succeeding  best  with  silage  are  those 
who  buy  young,  light-weight  feeders  weighing  from  600 
to  1,000  pounds,  feeding  them  silage  in  largest  amounts  at 
the  beginning  of  the  fattening  period,  providing  abundant 
shelter,  and  that  in  most  instances  the  silage  is  withdrawn 
from  the  ration  several  weeks  before  the  cattle  are  fin- 
ished, and  who  do  not  depend  upon  silage  exclusively. 
Several  practical  feeders  have  expressed  the  opinion  that 
the  main  utility  of  silage  is  to  prepare  cattle  for  heavy 
feeding  by  putting  them  in  condition  to  feed  well;  that 
as  an  appetizer  and  a  laxative  it  has  great  value  in  start- 
Ing  cattle  on  feed." 

The   Investigations   of  the  Ohio  and  Indiana  Stations 


SILAGE  FOR  FATTENING.  '  31 

regarding  the  use  of  corn  silage  for  fattening  beef  cattle, 
Indicate  that  it  can  be  used  to  good  advantage,  when 
stover  and  hay  are  high  in  price.  The  Farmer's  Guide  of 
Indianapolis  thus  comments  on  the  matter: 

"Forty-two  head  of  steers,  most  of  them  grade  Short- 
horns, were  used  in  an  experiment  in  which  25  pounds  of 
silage  per  steer  was  fed  daily.  The  ration  which  included 
the  silage  gave  almost  exactly  the  same  rate  of  gain  as 
did  the  dry  ration. 

"No  difference  in  the  finish  of  the  two  sets  of  cattle  was 
apparent.  This  was  shown  by  the  fact  that  although  when 
the  cattle  were  at  market,  one  pen  contained  only  silage- 
fed  cattle  and  another  only  dry-fed  cattle.  A  buyer  of 
wide  experience,  without  knowing  how  the  cattle  had  been 
fed,  purchased  both  lots  at  the  same  price.  Other  expert 
cattlemen  failed  to  note  any  difference  between  the  two 
lots. 

"It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  silage  alone  or  silage  and 
other  rough  feed  will  produce  a  high  finish  in  a  short 
feeding  period,  since  not  enough  grain  is  present  in  the 
silage  for  this  purpose.  Less  shelled  corn,  however,  was 
required  by  the  steers  that  received  silage  than  by  the 
ones  that  received  only  dry  feed. 

"The  results  obtained  by  the  Ohio  station  with  the  feed- 
ing of  silage  to  beef  cattle  are  similar  to  the  experience 
of  the  Indiana  station,  where  it  was  found  that  silage  added 
to  the  feeding  ration  was  an  advantage  in  the  way  of 
providing  succulence.  Several  practical  feeders  have  made 
a  marked  success  with  this  feed  and  do  not  hesitate  to 
recommend  it.  In  fact,  one  Ohio  man  has  several  large 
silos,  which  he  flits  annually  especially  for  feeding  his 
beef  cattle. 

"When  it  is  figured  that  all  the  feeding  value  of  the 
corn  plant  is  preserved  in  the  form  of  silage;  that  there 
is  an  immense  saving  in  storage  space;  that  it  is  easier 
handled  in  feeding,  and  that  all  animals  eat  it  with  a 
relish,  it  seems  that  the  farmer  might,  with  advantage, 
give  silage  a  little  more  consideration.  A  silo,  well  filled 
will  provide  plenty  of  succulent,  nutritious  feed  for  live 
stock  during  that  period  of  the  year  when  pastures  are 
short  and  during  the  winter  months  when  green  feed  is 
unobtainable." 

The  Indiana  Experiment  Station  reports  the  results  of 
a  six  months'  feeding  trial,  wherein  "one  lot  of  steers  was 


32  SILAGE   IN   BEEP   PRODUCTION. 

fed  a  ration  of  shelled  corn,  cotton  seed  meal  and  a  full 
ration  of  corn  silage.  A  second  was  fed  a  ration  of  shelled 
corn,  cotton  seed  meal,  some  hay  and  about  one-half  a 
full  ration  of  corn  silage,  while  a  third  lot  was  fed  all  the 
corn  and  clover  they  would  eat.  Corn  was  valued  at 
60  cents  a  bushel,  cotton  seed  meal  at  $27  per  ton,  clover 
hay  at  $8  per  ton,  and  corn  silage  at  $3  per  ton.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  experiment  the  lots  did  not  vary  more 
than  25  pounds  in  total  weight  and  all  steers  were  pur- 
chased at  the  same  price  per  hundred-weight.  There  were 
ten  steers  in  each  lot,  and  hogs  followed  each  lot  to  con- 
sume feed  left  in  the  droppings. 

The  experiment  opened  Nov.  18,  1908,  and  closed  May 
17,  1909.  During  this  period  of  six  months  the  first  lot 
gained  4,658.3  pounds,  or  an  average  of  2.58  pounds  per 
day;  the  second,  4,211.6  pounds,  or  2.33  pounds  per  day; 
the  third,  3,416.6,  or  1.89  pounds  per  day.  The  lot  receiving 
the  full  silage  ration,  therefore,  gained  more  than  a  half 
pound  more  per  day  than  the  lot  receiving  no  silage,  while 
that  receiving  half  a  full  silage  ration  gained  somewhat 
less  than  half  a  pound  more  also  than  the  lot  receiving 
no  silage. 

The  cost  of  a  pound  of  gain  for  the  full  silage  fed  lot 
was  $9.79;  for  the  lot  having  a  half  silage  ration,  $11.35, 
and  for  the  clover  and  corn  fed  lot,  $12.99.  In  the  same 
order  the  first  lot  sold  at  $7.25  per  hundredweight,  or  99 
cents  higher  than  was  necessary  to  sustain  neither  loss 
nor  gain  on  the  proposition.  The  second  sold  at  $7.15,  or  64 
cents  more  than  was  necessary  to  eustain  no  loss,  and  the 
third  at  $6.90,  or  only  15  cents  above  the  cost.  The  pork 
produced  behind  the  first  lot  netted  $107.23,  behind  the 
second  $124.61,  and  the  third,  $97.68.  The  net  profit  re- 
Bulting  from  feeding  the  ten  steers  receiving  a  full  silage 
ration,  shelled  corn  and  cotton  seed  meal,  wai  $24.04  per 
head,  including  the  profit  from  the  pork  produced,  that  of 
the  ten  steers  fed  a  half  silage  ration,  some  hay  and  shelled 
corn  and  cotton  seed  meal,  $19.71  per  head,  and  those  re- 
ceiving clover  and  shelled  corn  only,  $12.64  per  head,  both 


SILAGE  FOR  BEEP  CATTLE.  33 

also  including  profit  on  the  pork.  The  first  lot,  therefore, 
appears  at  an  advantage  of  $11.33  per  steer  over  the  lot 
receiving  no  silage,  while  the  second  lot  also  appears  at 
an  advantage  of  $7.07  per  steer  over  this  lot.  Judging 
from  these  results,  the  silo  is  a  paying  investment  to  the 
beef  feeder.  The  difference  in  net  profit  from  feeding 
these  30  steers  the  full  silage  ration  and  the  corn  and 
clover  ration  alone,  would  amount  to  $339.90  in  favor  of 
the  full  silage  ration." 

Indiana  and  Ohio  seem  to  have  set  the  pace  for  feeding 
eilage  to  beef  cattle,  and  an  increasingly  large  number  of 
silos  is  being  erected  as  a  result  of  the  stimulus  given 
to  this  kind  of  feeding.  The  Breeder's  Gazette  of  Chi- 
cago says: 

"Indiana  feeders  who  have  demonstrated  to  their  own 
satisfaction  that  silage  is  valuable  for  beef  production 
are  expanding  their  operations  this  season,  and  have  been 
liberal  buyers  at  Chicago,  Omaha  and  Kansas  City.  South- 
ern Michigan  will  feed  an  unusually  large  number  of  cattle, 
owing  to  scarcity  of  lambs.  Illinois  has  been  a  heavy  pur- 
chaser both  at  Kansas  City  and  Omaha,  and  Chicago 
could  have  sent  five  good  feeding  steers  into  nearby  terri- 
tory where  one  has  been  available. 

"Continued  high  prices  have  encouraged  cattle  feeding 
in  sections  where,  according  to  confident  prophecy,  the 
industry  was  on  the  wane." 

Quoting  again  from  an  agricultural  publication: 

"The  Kansas  stations  report  that  steers  fed  a  ration 
with  silage  made  better  gains,  and  excelled  those  without 
silage  as  prime  beef.  The  Ontario  Agricultural  College 
reports  that  more  rapid  gains  and  cheaper  gains  were 
made  on  grain  and  silage  than  on  grain  and  hay  or  grain 
and  roots. 

"From  results  it  appears  that  cattle  receiving  silage  as 
their  sole  roughness  during  the  winter,  made  the  largest 
average  gains,  did  not  drift  materially  when  turned  on 
grass  after  the  first  ten  days,  slaughtered  out  to  better  ad- 
vantage than  dry-fed  cattle,  and  were  in  a  thriftier  and 
better  condition  throughout  the  entire  feeding  period.  This 
would  go  to  show  that  succulent  foods  can  be  fed  to  cattle 
maintained  as  stackers  and  flniihed  on  grass.  Larger  re- 
turns can  be  got  from  feeding  iilage  to  cattle  than  from 

i 


34  SILAGE   IN  BEEP   PRODUCTION. 

grazing  them.  This  is  only  natural  when  we  consider  that 
an  acre  of  corn  yielding  eight  tons  of  silage  will  keep  four 
cows  180  days,  while  an  acre  of  pasture  will  keep  only  one 
cow  that  long." 

It  is  a  mistake  for  the  feeder  to  regard  either  silage 
or  hay  as  a  satisfactory  substitute  for  the  other,  to  the 
extent  of  entirely  replacing  one  with  the  other.  Says  Mr. 
C.  F.  Curtiss  of  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station: 

"The  chief  cause  of  complaint  in  the  use  of  silage 
arises  from  the  fact  that  it  is  too  often  regarded  as  a 
complete  ration.  The  use  of  silage  does  not  dispense  with 
the  use  of  grain,  except  in  case  of  "very  moderate  feeding 
for  maintenance,  without  much  reference  to  grain.  Where 
good  corn  silage  is  used  it  may  usually  be  substituted  for 
about  two-thirds  the  hay  and  about  one-third  the  grain 
that  would  be  used  in  full  feeding,  without  the  silage. 

"Clover  hay  is  well  adapted  to  supplement  silage  to 
correct  the  excessive  acidity  of  heavy  silage  feeding  and 
also  to  furnish  the  protein  nutrients  in  which  silage  is 
lacking.  It  should  not  be  left  out  of  the  ration  when  feed- 
ing silage." 

Prof.  Plumb  of  the  Ohio  Agricultural  College  has  this 
to  say  on  the  subject: 

"If  silage  is  fed  under  cover,  and  to  cattle  not  wallowing 
in  mud  or  oozy  manure,  then  good  results  will  generally 
come  from  its  use.  However,  hay  or  other  dry  roughage 
should  also  be  fed.  Silage  fed  twice  a  day  and  hay  once 
should  give  good  results.  When  cattle  are  being  finished 
for  shipment,  then  the  amount  of  silage  fed  should  be 
reduced  and  the  dry  roughage  increased,  this  to  prevent 
much  shrinkage  in  shipping.  However,  in  what  is  known 
as  rational  feeding,  but  little  shrinkage  is  apt  to  occur 
from  the  use  of  the  silage.  In  experiments  with  steers 
fed  different  rations  at  the  Virginia  station,  those  fed 
silage  showed  no  appreciable  shrinkage  in  the  market 
over  those  fed  exclusively  dry  feed. 

"In  feeding  experiments  conducted  at  the  Missouri 
station  in  1906-7  with  steers  weighing  about  800  pounds 
each  at  the  beginning,  those  fed  silage  ate  less  dry  matter 
than  those  fed  whole  stover  or  shredded  stover  and  gained 
in  weight,  while  the  dry  stover  lots  lost.  The  same  sort 
of  result*  were  also  secured  from  feeding  siloed  stover 
compared  with  air-dried  material." 


SILAGE  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE.  35 

One  of  the  largest  feeders  of  beef  cattle  in  the  East, 
Hon.  Humphrey  Jones,  scored  a  center  shot  for  "silage- 
for-beef"  when  he  remarked: 

"We  carry  upon  the  same  land  more  than  fifty  per 
cent,  more  cattle  than  we  did  before  we  had  the  silos,  and 
whatever  the  correct  theory  of  the  matter  may  be,  this 
solid  hard  fact  is  sufficient  to  satisfy  us  that  very  much 
more  can  be  got  out  of  the  corn  plant  fed  in  the  form  of 
silage  than  when  fed  dry  in  any  manner  which  is  practi- 
cable with  us." 

Mr  Jones  has  large  stock  farms  at  Washington  C.  H., 
Ohio.  He  is  a  heavy  feeder  of  steers — feeds  from  500  to 
1,000  annually — and  he  makes  ensilage  a  very  large  factor 
in  the  ration.  He  speaks  therefore  from  the  standpoint 
of  practical  experience,  and  being  a  thorough  business 
farmer,  his  statements  can  be  relied  upon  as  accurate. 
On  this  subject  Mr.  Jones  says: 

"We  have  found  in  the  experience  of  feeding  all  kinds 
of  cattle,  from  calves  to  three-year-olds,  that  we  can  get 
as  good  gains  from  feeding  ensilage  as  in  any  other  method 
of  feeding  that  we  were  ever  familiar  with.  We  add  to 
our  silage,  of  course,  clover  hay  or  alfalfa.  We  grow  large 
quantities  of  these.  During  most  of  the  time  we  have 
added  to  our  corn  soy  beans  cut  in  with  it,  because  they 
are  very  rich  in  protein.  In  addition  to  that  we  have  fed 
cottonseed  meal  with  the  silage,  and  it  is  an  ideal  way 
to  feed  it,  because  cottonseed  meal  is  a  thing  by  which 
cattle  may  be  injured  if  it  is  not  properly  fed.  When 
sprinkled  over  the  ensilage  it  is  mingled  with  all  that 
mass  of  roughage,  and  you  can  feed  from  three  to  five 
pounds  of  cotton  seed  meal  for  six  months  to  cattle  with- 
out any  serious  effects  at  all.  We  advise  starting  with 
about  two  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal,  and  increasing  up 
toward  the  end  of  the  period  to  about  five  pounds;  and 
with  that,  without  the  addition  of  a  grain  of  corn,  we  have 
been  able  to  make  gains  as  rapidly  and  put  the  cattle  in 
better  finish  than  we  were  ever  able  to  do  in  any  other 
way. 

"Fifty  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre  will  make  about 
ten  tons  of  ensilage  as  it  comes  from  the  field,  and  about 
eight  tons  as  it  conies  out  of  the  silo.  There  is  a  weight 
of  about  3,000  pounds  of  corn  in  that,  which  you  see  is 
about  20  per  cent,  of  the  total  weight  as  fed  to  the  cattle; 


36  SILAGE    IN    BEEF    PRODUCTION. 

and  the  steer  will  eat  about  fifty  pounds  a  day,  which  con- 
tains ten  pounds  of  corn;  and  he  is  getting  it  in  a  form 
that  he  digests  and  utilizes  every  pound.  If  you  add  to 
that  two  to  five  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal,  all  our  infor- 
mation upon  that  matter  is  that  it  has  a  feeding  value  of 
about  two  and  one-half  times  shelled  corn;  so  that  if  you 
give  a  steer  five  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal,  he  is  getting 
an  equivalent  of  ten  pounds  or  more  of  corn,  in  addition 
to  the  ten  pounds  of  actual  corn  fed  in  the  ensilage.  If  he 
digests  and  utilizes  every  pound  of  the  twenty  pounds  of 
corn,  either  in  the  form  of  cottonseed  meal  or  shelled 
corn,  he  will  do  well,  if  he  has  all  the  good  roughage  he 
wants.  In  addition  to  that,  this  ensilage  puts  him  in  the 
shape  that  he  is  when  he  is  on  grass.  It  is  a  succulent, 
cooling  food,  that  keeps  his  hair  in  the  same  condition 
as  when  he  is  on  grass,  and  it  finishes  him  up  evenly.  Our 
experience  has  been  that  they  finish  up  more  uniformly 
on  the  ensilage  than  on  dry  feed.  These  gains,  as  you  can 
see,  if  they  are  made  as  rapidly  on  the  ensilage,  hay,  and 
cottonseed  meal  as  they  can  be  made  in  any  other  way, 
must  be  made  much  more  economically,  because  you  are 
utilizing  there  the  stalk  and  the  leaves  and  the  husks  of 
the  corn  plant,  which,  as  I  have  said,  counting  the  corn 
worth  40  cents  a  bushel,  and  fifty  bushels  to  the  acre,  is 
worth  two-fifths  as  much  as  the  ears;  so  you  are  feeding 
about  $12  or  $13  worth  that  you  are  wasting  in  the  ordi- 
nary way  of  feeding. 

"Briefly,  therefore,  it  is  our  experience  that  the  feed- 
ing of  ensilage  to  cattle  is  valuable.  It  has  long  been  recog- 
nized as  an  indispensable  in  the  dairy,  and  I  could  never 
understand  why,  if  it  was  good  to  put  fat  in  the  milk  pail, 
it  would  not  be  good  to  put  fat  on  the  back.  There  is  es- 
sentially no  difference  in  the  process  that  takes  place  in 
the  digestive  tract." 

Speaking  of  the  feeding  value  of  corn  when  put  in  the 
silo,  Mr.  Jones  continues: 

"The  putting  of  the  corn  in  the  silo  is  not  going  to  in- 
crease the  feeding  value  of  it  a  particle,  but  it  will  render 
the  grains  more  digestible.  The  food  in  a  large  silo  is 
always  so  hot  that  you  can't  hold  your  hand  in  it,  through 
the  process  of  fermentation;  and  it  therefore  puts  the 
grain  in  condition  so  that  it  is  more  easily  and  completely 
digested.  But  with  a  practical  feeder  of  cattle  that  is  not 
a  very  material  thing.  It  does  not  matter  if  the  cattle 
do  waste  a  great  deal  of  the  corn;  he  has  the  hogs  to 


SILAGE-FED  BEEF  CATTLE.  37 

gather  It  up.  So  there  is  no  increased  value  in  the  grain 
by  putting  it  in  the  silo,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the 
steer  will  digest  a  larger  per  cent,  of  it.  The  only  place 
that  the  benefit  or  gain  comes  in  is  through  getting  the 
full  value  of  the  stalks.  You  do  get  every  pound  of  that, 
because  the  steer  will  eat  it  up  completely.  Our  experi- 
ence covering  a  period  of  eight  years  is  that  the  figure 
of  40  per  cent,  value  in  the  stalks  is  not  too  high;  in 
fact,  I  think  it  is  low.  Practically,  I  believe,  the  feeding 
value  of  corn  by  putting  it  in  a  silo  is  doubled.  We  have 
been  able  to  carry  twice  as  many  cattle  as  we  could 
before. 

With  three-fourths  of  the  feeders  in  the  principal  cattle- 
feeding  sections  of  Ohio,  shock  corn  only  is  fed  and  the 
corn  stands  out  in  the  field  all  winter  and  is  hauled  to 
the  feed  lot  as  needed.  Many  shocks  twist  down  and  par- 
tially or  wholly  rot,  all  are  soaked  with  the  rains  and 
beaten  by  the  winds,  get  hard  and  woody,  and  are  thus 
more  or  less  damaged.  It  is  a  matter  of  common  know- 
ledge among  feeders  that  after  the  first  of  March  the 
fodder  in  shock  corn  is  of  little  value.  Under  favorable 
conditions,  fattening  cattle  will  eat  only  the  best  portions 
of  the  fodder,  and  the  great  bulk  of  it  is  wasted  and  thrown 
out  to  keep  them  up  out  of  the  mud.  With  all  these  things 
taken  into  consideration  the  gain  in  feed  value  to  the 
average  cattle  feeder  who  uses  shock  corn,  by  reason  of 
siloing  the  corn  is,  in  our  judgment,  not  less  than  fifty 
per  cent." 

Silage-fed  Beef  Cattle  in  the  South. 

After  exhaustive  experiments  conducted  at  the  Vir- 
ginia Station,  Prof.  Andrew  M.  Soule  concludes  that  the 
results  obtained  illustrate  the  value  of  silage  as  a  main- 
tenance food  for  winter  feeding,  whether  the  animals  are 
to  be  slaughtered  immediately  or  carried  over  and  grazed 
during  the  summer;  also,  that  silage  can  be  used  most 
advantageously  by  stockmen  in  the  South  and  that  its 
utilization  would  confer  many  advantages  which  are  not 
now  enjoyed  and  would  add  very  much  to  the  profits  se- 
cured from  the  winter  feeding  of  beef  animals,  no  matter 
what  disposition  is  to  be  made  of  them.  He  adds  that  the 
character  of  the  silage  has  much  to  do  with  Its  efficiency 
as  a  food  stuff,  and  the  skill  and  intelligence  displayed 


38  SILAGE   IN   BEEF   PRODUCTION. 

in  combining  it  with  suitable  companion  foods  exercise  a 
determining  influence  on  the  results  obtained  under  a 
given  set  of  conditions.  The  vast  importance  of  silage 
as  an  economic  factor  in  the  production  of  beef  in  the 
South  is  clearly  demonstrated  by  the  results  set  forth 
in  the  test  in  question. 

"The  test  of  1906-7  covered  a  period  of  149  days,  during 
which  time  the  average  ration  consumed  was  between  1* 
and  9  pounds  of  concentrates,  from  35  to  39  pounds  of 
silage  and  about  2  pounds  of  dry  stover  or  hay.  It  was 
found  advisable  to  feed  the  small  amount  of  dry  food  indi- 
cated to  overcome  the  laxative  tendencies  of  the  silage, 
but  it  was  surprising  to  find  what  a  very  small  amount  of 
dry  food  accomplished  this  end. 

Waste  of  Roughness. 

"As  in  previous  tests,  there  was  no  silage  wasted.  The 
percentage  of  roughness  wasted  in  the  form  of  stover 
varied  from  30.1  to  44.1  per  cent,  of  the  total  amount  fed. 
With  the  hay  this  varied  from  1.7  to  4.5  per  cent.  For  some 
reason  some  of  the  groups  did  not  eat  the  hay  nearly  as 
well  as  the  others.  These  results  would  indicate,  roughly 
speaking,  that  from  3  to  4  per  cent,  of  the  hay  ordinarily 
fed  would  be  wasted,  and  at  least  one-third  of  the  stover. 
These  figures  but  emphasize  again  the  great  advantage 
of  silage,  which  owing  to  its  ease  of  mastication,  palata- 
bility  and  pleasant  aroma,  when  properly  made,  provides 
a  most  inviting  form  of  roughness  for  cattle. 

Shrinking  of  Silage-fed  Cattle. 

"It  has  generally  been  said  that  cattle  fed  on  silage  as 
the  principal  roughness  would  lose  very  materially  in  live 
weight  when  shipped  long  distances.  The  cattle  in  this 
test  were  shipped  to  Jersey  City  under  the  usual  condi- 
tions, the  shrinkage  per  group  varying  from  197  to  213 
pounds.  There  was  little  to  choose  between  the  groups 
in  the  actual  loss  observed.  The  actual  loss  per  individual 
amounted  to  only  41.2  pounds,  which  is  a  comparatively 


SHRINKING    OF    SILAGE-FED    CATTLE.  39 

slight  shrinkage  with  any  lot  of  cattle  shipped  such  a 
long  distance.  In  fact,  practical  shippers  and  handlers 
in  this  State  figure  the  average  shrinkage  to  Jersey  City 
at  from  60  to  76  pounds. 

"There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  justification,  therefore, 
for  claiming  that  silage  fed  cattle  will  drift  more  than 
cattle  fed  in  other  ways.  Wjhen  these  cattle  were  sent 
to  Jersey  City  a  representative  of  the  Station  who  accom- 
panied them  found  the  buyers  much  prejudiced  against 
cattle  from  the  South,  stating  that  they  did  not  kill  out 
well,  and  that  the  meat  was  of  a  dark  color,  and  the  bone 
very  hard.  Though  these  cattle  presented  as  good  an  ap- 
pearance as  many  of  the  corn  fed  animals  shipped  from 
the  West  and  on  sale  at  the  same  time,  the  buyers  per- 
sisted in  discriminating  against  them  because  of  the  belief 
that  silage  fed  cattle  would  not  kill  out  advantageously 
or  make  a  first-class  quality  of  beef.  The  cattle  followed 
through  the  slaughter  pens,  however,  killed  out  as  well 
and  better  in  many  instances  than  the  corn  fed  cattle 
from  the  West,  and  the  meat  was  of  superior  quality,  the 
fat  and  lean  being  better  blended,  and  the  color  particu- 
larly good.  This  lot  of  cattle  dressed  out  56.9  per  cent., 
which  is  very  creditable,  considering  that  they  were  ordi- 
nary grade,  and  fed  but  150  days  on  a  ration  which  has 
been  regarded  as  eminently  unsatisfactory  for  feeding 
beef  cattle  to  a  finish.  These  figures  seem  to  amply  justify 
the  claim  that  silage  is  a  most  satisfactory  roughness  for 
beef  cattle,  and  that  animals  fed  on  it  will  ship  well,  kill 
well  and  produce  meat  of  fine  quality.  And  these  conclu- 
sions seem  justified  even  in  the  face  of  competition  with 
western  corn  fed  cattle. 

"The  efficiency  of  silage  as  a  valuable  food  for  Southern 
stockmen  when  fed  under  the  conditions  prevailing  in  this 
test  needs  no  further  vindication  in  the  light  of  the  facts 
here  set  forth,  and  should  do  much  to  encourage  the  pro- 
duction of  beef  in  sections  where  the  natural  conditions 
by  reason  of  the  insufficiency  of  grass  are  supposed  to  be 
a  barrier  to  this  phase  of  animal  industry. 


40  SILAGE   IN   BEEF   PRODUCTION. 

Silage  Good  for  Stockers. 

"Experiments  were  also  conducted  for  two  years  with 
the  object  of  ascertaining  which  was  the  best  rations  to 
feed  to  animals  which  it  is  desired  to  maintain  as  cheaply 
as  possible  and  still  keep  in  a  growing,  vigorous  condition 
throughout  the  winter.  It  is  naturally  essential  that  the 
rations  be  not  fattening  in  nature  or  the  animals  will  drift 
much  worse  when  put  on  grass,  but  it  seems  very  desirable 
than  some  grains  should  be  secured  rather  than  feed  the 
animals  very  considerable  quantities  of  expensive  foods 
as  is^now  often  the  case,  and  have  them  actually  lose  in 
live  weight  rather  than  make  gains  during  the  winter  sea- 
son. It  has  generally  been  held  that  silage  alone  could 
not  make  a  satisfactory  winter  ration  for  stockers,  and 
so  this  point  has  been  carefully  investigated  in  the  present 
experiment.  It  has  generally  been  held  that  cattle  fed  a 
watery  succulent  ration  in  the  winter  would  drift  very 
badly  when  placed  on  grass.  This  matter  will  be  discussed 
under  the  appropriate  heading,  as  the  results  obtained 
this  year  are  particularly  encouraging  and  in  a  matter  of 
economy  favor  silage  quite  markedly. 

Summary  Results  of  1905-6  and  1906-7. 

"In  conclusion,  a  summary  of  the  results  of  feeding  124 
head  of  cattle  is  presented.  Sixty-eight  of  these  cattle 
were  fed  to  a  finish  in  the  stall,  and  fifty-six  were  carried 
through  as  stockers  and  finished  on  grass.  The  average 
of  the  results  obtained  with  such  a  large  number  of  cattle 
should  be  fairly  reliable.  The  figures  for  both  years  cor- 
respond quite  closely  and  show  straight  silage,  or  silage 
and  grain  to  be  the  most  economical  ration  for  use  with 
stockers  in  the  winter.  Moreover  very  much  larger  profits 
can  be  secured  from  handling  stockers  with  the  price  of 
foodstuffs  as  charged  in  this  report  than  can  be  anticipated 
from  stall  feeding.  This  does  not  mean  that  stall  feeding 
can  not  be  practiced  in  some  sections  with  advantage 


RESULTS  OP  1905-6  AND  1906-7.  41 

where  grass  is  at  a  premium  or  unavailable.  It  is  proper 
to  reiterate  that  while  the  cost  of  finishing  in  the  stall 
is  practically  twice  as  much  per  pound  of  gain  as  on  grass 
that  the  figures  are  presented  in  an  unfavorable  light  to 
the  stall  finished  cattle.  These  figures  also  seem  to  justify 
the  fact  that  cattle  fed  on  silage  yield  a  superior  quality 
of  beef,  do  not  drift  materially  when  shipped  long  dis- 
tances to  market,  will  kill  out  a  good  percentage  of  dressed 
meat  as  compared  with  animals  finished  in  the  west  on- 
corn.  These  results  also  shown  that  on  a  margin  of  $1.00 
and  without  taking  into  consideration  the  value  of  the 
manure  or  the  cost  of  labor,  stall  feeding  can  be  practiced 
in  many  sections  advantageously  even  when  the  animals 
are  charged  the  highest  market  prices  for  the  foodstuffs 
utilized.  On  the  other  hand,  cattle  handled  as  stockers 
will  produce  a  considerable  quantity  of  manure  and 
may  be  made  to  consume  cheap  forms  of  roughness 
made  on  the  farm,  will  make  large  profits  on  a  margin 
of  50  cents,  and  will  even  make  fair  profits  on  a  margin 
of  25  cents  when  the  pasture  is  charged  to  them  at  the 
rate  of  $1.25  per  acre. 

"These  facts  are  such  as  to  justify  us  in  recommending 
farmers  generally  to  build  silos  and  utilize  silage  in  their 
winter  feeding  operations  for  practically  all  classes  of 
cattle  as  we  believe  it  can  be  fed  to  advantage  to  calves 
and  yearlings  and  cattle  to  be  finished  either  in  the  stall 
or  on  grass.  The  construction  of  a  silo  is  not  a  costly  op- 
eration and  it  furnishes  food  for  several  months  in  the 
cheapest  and  easiest  form  to  handle  and  convey  to  live 
stock.  It  is  palatable,  easy  of  digestion  and  assimilation 
and  is  highly  relished  by  all  classes  of  live  stock.  It  is 
made  from  a  crop  that  is  more  widely  cultivated  than  any 
other  in  America  and  solves  the  difficult  problem  of  secur- 
ing satisfactory  substitutes  for  grass  in  sections  where 
the  latter  does  not  thrive  well.  The  results  taken  all  in  all 
justify  the  high  value  we  have  placed  on  silage,  and  it  is 
believed  that  its  extensive  utilization  will  result  in  revo- 
lutionizing the  animal  industries  of  the  South." 


CHAPTER    IV. 

THE  SILAGE  SYSTEM  HELPS    MAINTAIN 
SOIL    FERTILITY. 

When  the  cattle  feeders  of  this  country  once  thoroughly 
realize  that  they  can  profitably  feed  and  raise  stock  by 
means  of  the  silage  system,  the  great  problem  of  maintain- 
ing and  increasing  soil  fertility  will  very  largely  solve 
itself,  and  exhausted  soils  will  recuperate  of  their  own 
accord. 

This  statement  is  based  on  certain  fundamental  facts, 
which  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  180  covers  briefly  as  follows: 

"When  subjected  to  proper  chemical  tests  or  processes 
every  substance  found  on  our  globe,  no  matter  whether  it 
belongs  to  the  mineral,  vegetable  or  animal  kingdom, 
may  be  reduced  to  single  elements,  of  which  we  now 
know  over  seventy.  Many  of  these  elements  occur  but 
rarely,  and  others  are  present  everywhere  in  abundance. 
United  mostly  in  comparatively  simple  combinations  of 
less  than  half  a  dozen  each,  these  elements  make  up 
rocks,  soils,  crops,  animals,  the  atmosphere,  water,  etc. 
The  crops  in  their  growth  take  some  of  the  elements  from 
the  soil  in  which  they  grow  and  others  from  the  air. 
Many  elements  are  of  no  value  to  crops;  a  few,  viz.,  13 
or  14,  are,  on  the  other  hand,  absolutely  necessary  to  the 
growth  of  plants;  if  one  or  more  of  these  essential  ele- 
ments are  lacking  or  present  in  insufficient  quantities  in 
the  soil,  the  plant  cannot  make  a  normal  growth,  no  matter 
in  what  quantities  the  others  may  occur,  and  the  yields 
obtained  will  be  decreased  as  a  result." 

The  problem  of  the  conservation  of  soil  fertility  is 
therefore  largely  one  of  maintaining  a  readily  available 
supply  of  the  essential  plant  elements  in  the  soil.  Most  of 
these  elements  occur  in  abundance  in  all  soils,  and  there 
are  really  only  about  three  of  them  that  the  farmer  need 
seriously  consider — nitrogen,  phosphorous  and  potash. 

42 


EXPERIMENT    COVERING   THIRTY    YEARS.       43 

Every  time  that  a  crop  is  grown  it  robs  the  soil  of  a  valu- 
able portion  of  these  elements.  A  ton  of  clover  hay  for 
instance,  takes  from  the  soil  $10.55  worth  of  fertilizer. 
One  hundred  bushels  of  corn  contains  148  pounds  of  nitro- 
gen, 23  pounds  of  phosphorous  and  71  pounds  of  potash, 
worth  at  present  market  prices,  15,  12  and  6  cents  per 
pound,  respectively,  or  $28.72.  That  much  fertilizer  is  re- 
moved with  every  100-bushel  corn  crop.  Other  crops  vary 
in  proportion.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  unless  these  ele- 
ments are  put  back  into  the  soil  in  some  way,  it  will  pro- 
duce steadily  declining  crops  and  soon  become  exhausted 
or  mined  out.  How  to  put  them  back  at  the  least  expense 
is  our  problem,  and  it  is  not  alone  for  the  benefit  of  future 
generations;  it  has  a  vital  bearing  on  our  own  crop  yields. 

At  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station,  an  experiment  cov- 
ering 30  years  shows  the  startling  effect  of  continuous  crop 
farming: 

"At  this  station  the  yield  on  a  typical  prairie  soil  has 
decreased  under  continuous  corn  raising  from  70  bushels 
to  the  acre  to  27  bushels  to  the  acre  during  this  period, 
while  under  a  system  of  crop  rotation  and  proper  fertiliza- 
tion the  yield  on  a  portion  of  the  same  field  has  been  in- 
creased during  the  same  period  to  96  bushels  per  acre. 
These  yields  are  not  of  a  certain  year,  but  averages  of 
three-year  periods.  The  96  bushels  was  obtained  in  a 
three-year  rotation  in  which  corn  was  followed  by  oats  in 
which  clover  was  sown.  The  next  year  clover  alone,  fol- 
lowed by  corn  again.  Stable  manure  with  commercial 
fertilizers  was  applied  to  the  clover  ground  to  be  plowed 
under  for  corn.  The  difference  in  the  yields  obtained  be- 
tween the  rotation  system  where  fertility  was  applied 
and  the  straight  corn  cropping  without  fertility  was 
69  bushels  per  acre,  or  over  two-and-a-half  times  that  of 
the  system  of  continuous  corn  raising.  A  large  proportion 
of  this  difference  in  yield  is  clear  profit,  as  the  actual 
expense  of  producing  the  96  bushels  to  the  acre  was  but 
little  more  than  in  growing  the  27.  If  the  results  of  these 
two  yields  were  figured  down  to  a  nicety,  and  the  value 


44        SILAGE    SYSTEM    MAINTAINS    FERTILITY. 

of  the  land  determined  by  the  net  income,  it  would  be 
found  that  the  well  farmed  acres  would  be  worth  an  enor- 
mous price  as  compared  with  a  gift  of  the  land  that  pro- 
duced the  smaller  yield." 

Barn-yard  manure  makes  splendid  fertilizer.  It  is  per- 
haps the  most  important  for  soil  improvement.  The  rea- 
son for  this  is  that  it  supplies  nitrogen,  phosphorous  and 
potash  and  the  decaying  organic  matter  needed.  In  feed- 
ing oats,  corn,  wheat  or  other  crops  to  animals,  it  is  well 
to  know  that  about  three-quarters  of  the  phosphorous  and 
nitrogen  and  practically  all  of  the  potash  go  through  the 
body  and  are  returned  in  the  solid  and  liquid  manure.  It 
is  evident  that  the  value  or  richness  of  the  manure  de- 
pends largely  on  the  crops  or  part  of  the  crops  fed  to  the 
animals.  Leguminous  crops  are  rich  in  nitrogen  and  phos- 
phorous. Three  and  one-half  tons  of  clover  will  contain 
as  much  phosphorous  and  40  pounds  more  nitrogen  than 
100  bushels  of  corn,  i.  e.:  23  pounds  phosphorous  and  188 
pounds  nitrogen.  Any  system  of  farming  where  grain  is 
sold  and  only  stalks  and  straw  retained  for  feed  produces 
manure  weak  in  both  nitrogen  and  phosphorous.  These 
elements  are  divided  in  the  corn  plant  on  the  100-bushel 
basis,  about  as  follows: 

100  Ibs.  nitrogen  in  grain  and  48  Ibs.  in  the  stalk. 
17  Ibs.  phosphorous  in  grain  and  6  Ibs.  in  the  stalk. 
19  Ibs.  potassium  in  grain  and  52  Ibs.  in  the  stalk. 

In  other  words,  two-thirds  of  the  nitrogen,  three-fourths 
of  the  phosphorous  and  one-fourth  of  the  potassium  are 
in  the  grain  or  seed  and  one-third  of  the'  nitrogen,  one- 
fourth  of  the  phosphorus  and  three-fourths  of  the  potas- 
sium are  in  the  stalk  or  straw.  In  siloing  the  corn  plant 
the  full  value  of  the  fertilizer,  in  both  stalk  and  grain,  is 
obtained  in  the  manure. 

The  value  of  manure  depends  very  largely  on  the  way 
in  which  it  is  handled.  Over  half  the  value  is  in  the  liquid 
portion. 

Experiments  were  conducted  at  the  Ohio  Experiment 
Station  with  two  lots  of  steers  for  six  months  to  ascertain 


NITROGEN    A    VALUABLE    ELEMENT.  45 

the  loss  through  seepage.  An  earth  floor  was  used  for  one 
lot  and  a  cement  floor  for  the  other  lot..  Manure  was 
weighed  and  analyzed  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the 
experiments  and  it  was  found  that  that  produced  on  the 
earth  floor  had  lost  enough  fertilizer  through  seepage 
dining  the  experiments  to  have  paid  half  the  cost  of  ce- 
menting the  floor. 

Losses  through  weathering  and  leaching  are  also  com- 
mon and  should  be  avoided.  Experiments  at  the  same 
station,  during  12  years,  show  that  fresh  manure  produced 
increase  in  crop  yields  over  yard  manure  amounting  to 
about  one-fourth  of  the  total  value  of  the  manure. 

Nitrogen  is  manure's  most  valuable  element  measured 
by  the  cost  of  replacing  it  in  commercial  fertilizer.  It 
heats  when  lying  in  heaps  and  the  strong  ammonia  odor, 
due  to  the  combination  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  manure  and 
the  hydrogen  of  the  moisture  of  the  heap,  indicates  tWat 
in  time  all  the  nitrogen  will  escape  in  the  form  of  am- 
monia gas.  It  is  said  that  a  ton  of  manure  contains  about 
10  pounds  of  nitrogen,  worth  $1.50  or  $2.00,  so  that  this 
loss  of  nitrogen  is  a  serious  one. 

An  average  dairy  cow  of  1,000  pounds  weight,  properly 
fed,  will  throw  off  $13.00  worth  of  nitrogen  and  potash 
a  year  in  her  urine.  A  horse  will  throw  off  $18.00  worth. 
Urine  has  a  greater  fertilizing  value  than  manure,  and 
together  they  become  ideal. 

p]very  farmer  can  have  his  own  manure  factory  by 
keeping  live  stock.  Naturally,  the  more  live  stock  the 
farm  ^an  keep,  the  more  manure  he  will  have  for  returning 
to  the  soil. 

The  silo  here  comes  in  as  a  material  aid,  and  with  its 
adoption  it  is  possible  to  keep  at  least  twice  as  much  live 
stock  on  a  given  area  of  land.  Pasturing  cattle  is  becom- 
ii-g  too  expensive  a  method.  High  priced  lands  can  be 
used  to  better  advantage  by  growing  the  feeding  crop  and 
siloing  it,  without  any  waste,  to  be  preserved  and  fed 
fresh  and  green  the  year  around.  This  method,  as  we  have 


46        SILAGE    SYSTEM    MAINTAINS    FERTILITY. 

said,  will  insure  the  maximum  supply  of  splendid  fertiliz- 
ing material. 

But  the  silo  does  more — it  converts  the  farm  into  a 
factory  as  it  were — i.  e.,  it  will  become  a  creator  of  a  fin- 
ished or  more  nearly  finished  product  instead  of  being  the 
producer  of  a  mere  raw  material.  The  effect  will  be  to 
raise  proportionately  the  price  of  every  commodity  offered 
for  sale. 

"On  the  ordinary  farm  which  markets  cereal  crops 
only  a  part  is  ever  sufficiently  fertile  to  return  a  profit. 
The  other  acres  must  be  put  by  to  regain  fertility  and  are 
so  much  dead  capital  while  they  are  made  ready  for  a 
further  effort.  Not  so  with  a  farm  devoted  to  beef  as  the 
market  crop.  Every  acre  of  it  may  be  seen  producing 
year  after  year  in  an  increasing  ratio,  and  occasional 
crops  such  as  potatoes — which  while  they  need  a  rich 
soil  for  their  development  yet  draw  but  lightly  on  fertility 
and  are  very  useful  as  cleaning  crops — will  yield  bumper 
profits  in  cash." 

This  statement  applies  with  full  force  to  what  is  an- 
other very  desirable  attribute  of  the  silo  and  the  silage 
system — that  it  will  so  increase  the  live  stock  of  the  farm 
that  many  of  the  products  heretofore  sold  in  a  raw  state, 
and  which  contain,  and  therefore  carry  away  most  of  the 
fertility  of  the  farm,  may  now  be  fed  at  home. 

A  few  examples  will  best  serve  to  illustrate  this  state- 
ment: 

The  fertilizing  constituents  in  a  ton  of  clover  hay,  as 
above  stated,  amount  nominally  to  $10.55.  This  would 
mean  then  that  every  time  the  farmer  sells  a  ton  of  clover 
hay,  he  sells  $10.55  worth  of  fertility.  So  much  fertility 
has  gone  from  the  farm  forever.  It  would  most  certainly 
be  wise  to  feed  the  clover  at  home  as  a  balance  to  the  sil- 
age ration,  thereby  keeping  the  fertility  on  the  farm,  and 
making  at  the  same  time  some  finished  product,  as  cream, 
milk,  butter,  cheese  or  beef,  the  sale  of  which  will  not 
carry  away  from  the  farm  any  great  amount  of  fertility. 


EXAMPLE  OF  A  FINISHED  PRODUCT.  47 

The  sale  of  a  ton  of  butter,  which  is  perhaps  the  best 
example  of  a  finished  or  manufactured  product  from  the 
farm,  contains  but  27  cents'  worth  of  fertility.  Why  then 
is  it  not  the  part  of  wisdom  to  feed  the  clover  hay,  which 
contains  as  above  noted,  $10.55  in  fertility;  timothy  hay, 
$9.05;  corn,  $7.72,  and  oats,  $10.27,  and  convert  the  whole 
into  a  finished  product — butter,  which  when  sold  takes 
but  27  cents  in  fertility  away  with  it? 


CHAPTER  V. 

HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 

Before  taking  up  for  consideration  the  more  impor- 
tant type  of  silo  construction,  it  will  be  well  to  explain 
briefly  a  few  fundamental  principles  in  regard  to  the 
building  of  silos  which  are  common  to  all  types  of  silo 
structures.  When  the  farmer  understands  these  principles 
thoroughly,  he  will  be  able  to  avoid  serious  mistakes  in 
building  his  silo  and  will  be  less  bound  by  specific  direc- 
tions, that  may  not  always  exactly  suit  his  conditions,  than 
would  otherwise  be  the  case.  What  is  stated  in  the  fol- 
lowing in  a  few  words  is.  in  many  cases  the  result  of 
dearly-bought  experiences  of  pioneers  in  siloing;  many 
points  may  seem  self-evident  now,  which  were  not  under- 
stood or  appreciated  until  mistakes  had  been  made  and 
a  full  knowledge  had  been  accumulated  as  to  the  condi- 
tions under  which  perfect  silage  can  be  secured. 

General  Requirements  for  Silo  Structures. 

1.  The  silo  must  be  air-tight.  We  have  seen  that 
the  process  of  silage  making  is  largely  a  series  of  fer- 
mentation processes.  Bacteria  (small  plants  or  germs, 
which  are  found  practically  everywhere)  pass  into  the 
silo  with  the  corn  or  the  siloed  fodder,  and,  after  a  short 
time,  begin  to  grow  and  multiply  in  It,  favored  by  the 
presence  of  air  and  an  abundance  of  feed  materials  in 
the  fodder.  The  more  air  at  the  disposal  of  the  bacteria, 
the  further  the  fermentation  process  will  progress.  If  a 
supply  of  air  is  admitted  to  the  silo  from  the  outside,  the 
bacteria  will  have  a  chance  to  continue  to  grow,  and 
more  fodder  will  therefore  be  wasted.  If  a  large  amount 
of  air  be  admitted,  as  is  usually  the  case  with  the  top 

48 


GENERAL  REQUIREMENTS.  49 

layer  of  silage,  the  fermentation  process  will  be  more  far- 
reaching  than  is  usually  the  case  in  the  lower  layers  of 
the  silo.  Putrifactive  bacteria  will  then  continue  the 
work  of  the  acid-bacteria,  and  the  result  will  be  rotten 
gilage.  If  no  further  supply  of  air  is  at  hand,  except  what 
remains  in  the  interstices  between  the  siloed  fodder,  the 
bacteria  will  gradually  die  out,  or  only  such  forms  will 
survive  as  are  able  to  grow  in  the  absence  of  air. 

Another  view  of  the  cause  of  the  changes  occurring 
in  siloed  fodder  has  been  put  forward  lately,  viz.,  that 
these  are  due  not  to  bacteria,  but  to  "intramolecular  res- 
piration" in  the  plant  tissue,  that  is  due  to  a  natural  dying- 
off  of  the  life  substance  of  the  plant  cells.  From  a  practical 
point  of  view  it  does  not  make  any  difference  whether  the 
one  or  the  other  explanation  is  correct.  The  facts  are 
with  us,  that  if  much  air  is  admitted  into  the  silo,  through 
cracks  in  the  wall  or  through  loose  packing  of  the  siloed 
mass,  considerable  losses  of  food  substances  will  take 
place,  first,  because  the  processes  of  decomposition  are 
then  allowed  to  go  beyond  the  point  necessary  to  bring 
about  the  changes  by  which  the  silage  differs  from  green 
fodder,  and,  second,  because  the  decomposition  will  cause 
more  or  less  of  the  fodder  to  spoil  or  mold. 

2.  The  silo  must  be  deep.  Depth  is  essential  in  build- 
ing a  silo,  so  as  to  have  the  siloed  fodder  under  consider- 
able pressure,  which  will  cause  it  to  pack  well  and  leave 
as  little  air  as  possible  in  the  interstices  between  the  cut 
fodder,  thus  reducing  the  losses  of  food  materials  to  a 
minimum.  The  early  silos  built  in  this  country  or  abroad 
were  at  fault  in  this  respect;  they  were  shallow  struc- 
tures, not  over  12-15  ft.  perhaps,  and  were  longer  than  they 
were  deep.  Experience  showed  that  it  was  necessary  to 
weight  heavily  the  siloed  fodder  placed  in  these  silos,  in 
order  to  avoid  getting  a  large  amount  of  moldy  silage. 
In  our  modern  silos  no  weighting  is  necessary,  since  the 
material  placed  in  the  silo  is  sufficiently  heavy  from  the 
great  depth  of  it  to  largely  exclude  the  air  in  the  siloed 
fodder  and  thus  secure  a  good  quality  of  silage.  In  case 
4 


50  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 

of  deep  silos  the  loss  from  spoiled  silage  on  the  top  is 
smaller  in  proportion  to  the  whole  amount  of  silage 
stored;  there  is  also  less  surface  in .  proportion  to  the 
silage  stored,  hence  a  smaller  loss  occurs  while  the  silage 
is  being  fed  out,  and  since  the  silage  is  more  closely 
packed,  less  air  is  admitted  from  the  top.  As  the  silage 
packs  better  in  a  deep  silo  than  in  a  shallow  one,  the 
former  kind  of  silos  will  hold  more  silage  per  cubic  foot 
than  the  latter;  this  is  plainly  seen  from  the  figures  given 
in  the  table  on  page  53.  Silos  built  during  late  years  have 
generally  been  over  thirty  feet  deep,  and  many  are  forty 
feet  deep  or  more. 

3.  The   silo    must   have   smooth,    perpendicular   walls, 
which    will    allow    the    mass    to    settle    without    forming 
cavities  along  the  walls.    In  a  deep  silo  the  fodder  will 
settle  several  feet  during  the  first  few  days  after  filling. 
Any  unevenness  in  the  wall  will  prevent  the  mass  from 
settling  uniformly,  and  air  spaces  in  the  mass  thus  formed 
will  cause  the  surrounding  silage  to  spoil. 

4.  The  walls  of  the  silo  must  be  rigid  and  very  strong, 
so  as  not  to  spring  when  the  siloed  fodder  settles.    The 
lateral   (outward)    pressure  of  cut  fodder  corn  when  set- 
tling at  the  time  of  filling  is  considerable,  and  increases 
with  the  depth  of  the  silage  at  the  rate  of  about  eleven 
pounds  per  square  foot  of  depth.    At  a  depth  of  20  feet 
there  is,  therefore,  an  outward  pressure  of  330  pounds,  etc. 
In  case  of  a  16-foot  square  silo  where  the  sill  is  30  feet 
below  the  top  of  the  silage  the  side  pressure  on  the  lower 
foot  of  the  wall  would  be  about  16x330,  or  5280  pounds. 

It  is  because  of  this  great  pressure  that  it  is  so  diffi- 
cult to  make  large  rectangular  silos  deep  enough  to  be 
economical,  and  it  is  because  the  walls  of  rectangular 
silos  always  spring  more  or  less  under  the  pressure  of 
the  silage  that  this  seldom  keeps  as  well  in  them  as  it  does 
in  those  whose  walls  cannot  spring. 

As  the  silage  in  the  lower  part  of  the  silo  continues 
to  settle,  the  stronger  outward  pressure  there  spreads 
the  wallg  more  than  higher  up  and  the  result  is  the  wall 


SIZE  OF  THE  SILO.  51 

may  be  actually  forced  away  from  the  silage  so  that  air 
may  enter  from  above;  and  even  if  this  does  not  occur 
the  pressure  against  the  sides  will  be  so  much  lessened 
above  by  the  greater  spreading  below  that  if  the  walls  are 
at  all  open,  air  will  more  readily  enter  through  them. 

In  the  round  wooden  silos  every  board  acts  as  a  hoop 
and  as  the  wood  stretches  but  little  lengthwise  there 
can  be  but  little  spreading  of  such  walls,  and  in  the  casie 
of  stave  silos  the  iron  hoops  prevent  any  spreading,  and 
it  is  on  account  of  these  facts  that  the  round  silo  is 
rapidly  replacing  every  other  form. 

After  the  silage  has  once  settled,  there  is  no  lateral 
pressure  in  the  silo;  cases  are  on  record  where  a  filled 
silo  has  burned  down  to  the  ground  with  the  silage  re- 
maining practically  intact  as  a  tall  stack. 

Other  points  of  importance  in  silo  building  which  do 
not  apply  to  all  kinds  of  silos,  will  be  considered  when 
we  come  to  describe  different  kinds  of  silo  structures. 
Several  questions  present  themselves  at  this  point  for 
consideration  viz.,  how  large  a  silo  shall  be  built,  where 
it  is  to  be  located,  and  what  form  of  silo  is  preferable 
under  different  conditions? 

On  the  Size  of  Silo  Required. 

In  planning  a  silo  the  first  point  to  be  decided  Is 
how  large  it  shall  be  made.  We  will  suppose  that  a 
farmer  has  a  herd  of  twenty-five  cows,  to  which  he  wishes 
to  feed  silage  during  the  winter  season,  say  for  180  days. 
We  note  at  this  point  that  silage  will  not  be  likely  to 
give  best  results  with  milch  cows,  or  with  any  other  class 
of  farm  animals,  when  it  furnishes  the  entire  portion  of 
the  dry  matter  of  the  feed  ration.  As  a  rule,  it  will  not 
be  well  to  feed  over  forty  pounds  of  silage  daily  per  head. 
If  this  quantity  be  fed  daily,  on  an  average  for  a  season 
of  180  days,  we  have  for  the  twenty-five  cows  180,000 
pounds,  or  ninety  tons.  On  account  of  the  fermentation 
processes  taking  place  in  the  silo,  we  have  seen  that 


52  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 

there  is  an  unavoidable  loss  of  food  materials  during  the 
siloing  period,  amounting  to,  perhaps,  10  per  cent.;  we 
must,  therefore,  put  more  than  the  quantity  given  into 
the  silo.  If  ninety  tons  of  silage  is  wanted,  about  one 
hundred  tons  of  fodder  corn  must  be  placed  in  the  silo; 
we  figure,  therefore,  that  we  shall  need  about  4  tons  of 
silage  per  head  for  the  winter,  but,  perhaps,  5  tons  per 
head  would  be  a  safer  calculation,  and  provide  for  some 
increase  in  the  size  of  the  herd. 

Corn  silage  will  weigh  from  thirty  pounds,  or  less, 
to  toward  fifty  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  according  to  the 
depth  in  the  silo  from  .which  it  is  taken,  and  the  amount 
of  moisture  which  it  contains.  We  may  take  forty  pounds 
as  an  average  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  corn  silage.  One 
ton  of  silage  will,  accordingly,  take  up  fifty  cubic  feet; 
and  100  tons,  5,000  cubic  feet.  If  a  rectangular  one-hun- 
dred-ton silo  is  to  bo  built,  say  12x14  feet,  it  must  then 
have  a  height  of  30  feet.  If  a  square  silo  is  wanted,  it 
might  be  given  dimensions  12x12x35  feet,  or  13x13x30 
feet;  if  a  circular  silo  the  following  dimensions  will  be 
about  right:  Diameter,  16  feet;  height  of  silo,  26  feet,  etc. 
In  the  same  way,  a  silo  holding  200  tons  of  corn  or  clover 
silage  may  be  built  of  the  dimensions  16x24x26  feet, 
20x20x25  feet,  or  if  round,  diameter,  20  feet,  height,  32 
feet,  etc. 

Since  the  capacity  of  round  silos  is  not  as  readily 
computed  as  in  case  of  a  rectangular  silo,  we  give  on  fol- 
lowing page  a  table  which  shows  at  a  glance  the  approxi- 
mate number  of  tons  of  silage  that  a  round  silo,  of  a 
diameter  from  10  to  26  feet,  and  20  feet  to  32  feet  deep, 
will  hold. 


CAPACITY  OF  ROUND  SILO. 


53 


APPROXIMATE   CAPACITY   OF    CYLINDRICAL   SIL.OS,    FOR 
WELL-MATURED    CORN    SILAGE,    IN   TONS. 


DEPTH  OF 
SILO,  FEET. 

INSIDE  DIAMETER  OF  SILO,  FEET. 

10 

12 

14 

15 

16 

18 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

20 

26 
.  28 
30 
32 
34 
36 
38 
40 
42 
45 
47 
49 
51 

38 
40 
43 
46 
49 
52 
55 
58 
61 
64 
68 
70 
73 

5l 

55 
59 
62 
66 
70 
74 
78 
83 
88 
93 
96 
101 

59 
63 
67 
72 
76 
81 
85 
90 
95 
100 
105 
110 
115 

67 
72 
77 
82 
87 
90 
97 
103 
108 
114 
119 
125 
131 

85 
91 
97 
103 
110 
116 
123 
130 
137 
144 
151 
158 
166 

105 
112 

120 
128 
135 
143 
152 
160 
169 
178 
187 
195 
205 

115 
123 
132 
141 
149 
158 
168 
177 
186 
196 
206 
215 
226 

127 
135 
145 
154 
164 
174 
184 
194 
204 
215 
226 
236 
258 

138 
148 
158 
169 
179 
190 
201 
212 
223 
235 
247 
258 
271 

151 
161 
172 
184 
195 
206 
219 
231 
243 
265 
269 
282 
295 

163 
175 
187 
199 
212 
224 
237 
251 
264 
278 
292 
305 
320 

177 
189 
202 
216 
229 
242 
257 
271 
285 
300 
315 
330 
346 

21 

22 

23  

24 

25  

26  

°7 

28  

29 

30  

31  

32 

The  following  table  which  has  been  reproduced  from 
a  trade  publication  shows  at  a  glance  how  much  silage 
is  required  io  keep  eight  to  forty-five  cows  for  six  months, 
feeding  them  40  pounds  a  day,  and  the  dimensions  of  cir- 
cular silos  as  well  as  the  area  of  land  required  to  furnish 
the  different  amount  of  feed  given,  computed  at  15  tons  per 
acre.  The  amount  of  silage  given  in  the  table  refers 
to  the  number  of  tons  in  the  silo  after  all  shrinkage  has 
occurred;  as  the  condition  of  the  corn  as  placed  in  the 
silo  differs  considerably,  these  figures  may  vary  in  differ- 
ent years,  or  with  different  crops  of  corn,  and  should  not 
be  interpreted  too  strictly;  the  manner  of  filling  the  silo 
will  also  determine  how  much  corn  the  silo  will  hold; 
if  the  silo  is  filled  with  well-matured  corn,  and  after  this 
has  settled  for  a  couple  of  days,  filled  up  again,  it  will 
hold  at  least  ten  per  cent,  more  silage  than  when  it  is 
filled  rapidly  and  not  refilled  after  settling.  To  the  per- 
son about  to  fill  a  silo  for  the  first  time,  it  is  suggested 
that  it  requires  a  "good  crop"  to  yield  16  tons  per  acre, 
and  as  a  "little  too  much  is  about  right,"  be  sure  to  plant 
enough  to  fill  the  silo  full,  being  guided  by  the  condition 
of  soil,  etc.,  under  his  control. 


54 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 


Dimensions. 

Capacity  in  Tons. 

Acres  to  fill. 
15  Tons  to  Acre. 

Cows  it  will  keep 
6  months,  40  Ibs. 
feed  per  day. 

10x20 

28 

3 

8 

12x20 

40 

3 

11 

12x24 

49 

3% 

13 

12  x  28 

60 

4 

15 

14x22 

61 

4y2 

17 

14x24 

67 

4% 

19 

'14  x  28 

83 

5% 

22 

"14  x  30 

93 

6 

23 

16x24 

87 

6% 

24 

16x26 

97 

7 

26 

16x30 

119 

8 

30 

18x30 

151 

10175 

37 

18x36 

189 

12V3 

45 

On  the  Form  of  Silos. 

The  first  kind  of  silos  built,  in  this  country  or  abroad, 
were  simply  holes  or  pits  in  the  ground,  into  which  the 
fodder  was  dumped,  and  the  pit  was  then  covered  with  a 
layer  of  dirt  and,  sometimes  at  least,  weighted  with 
planks  and  stones.  Then,  when  it  was  found  that  a  large 
proportion  of  the  feed  would  spoil  by  this  crude  method, 
separate  silo  structures  were  built,  first  of  stone,  and 
later  on,  of  wood,  brick  or  cement.  As  previously  stated, 
the  first  separate  silos  built  were  rectangular,  shallow 
structures,  with  a  door  opening  at  one  end.  The  silos  of 
the  French  pioneer  Siloist,  August  Goffart,  were  about 
16  feet  high  and  40x16  feet  at  the  bottom.  Another  French 
silo  built  about  fifty  years  ago,  was  206x21^  feet  and  15 
feet  deep,  holding  nearly  1,500  tons  of  silage.  Silos  of  a 
similar  type,  but  of  smaller  dimensions,  were  built  in 
this  country  in  the  early  stages  of  silo  building.  Experi- 
ence has  taught  siloists  that  it  was  necessary  to  weight 
the  fodder  heavily  in  these  silos,  in  order  to  avoid  the 
spoiling  of  large  quantities  of  silage.  In  Goffart's  silos, 
boards  were  thus  placed  on  top  of  the  siloed  fodder,  and 


ON  THE  FORM  OP  SILOS.  55 

the  mass  was  weighted  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  pounds 
per  square  foot. 

It  was  found,  however,  after  some  time,  that  this 
heavy  weighing  could  be  dispensed  with  by  making  the 
silos  deep,  and  gradually  the  deep  silos  came  more  and 
more  into  use.  These  silos  were  first  built  in  this  country 
iii  the  latter  part  of  the  eighties;  at  the  present  time 
none  but  silos  at  least  twenty  to  twenty-four  feet  deep  are 
built,  no  matter  of  what  form  or  material  they  are  made, 
and  most  silos  built  are  at  least  twenty-four  to  thirty 
feet  deep,  or  more. 

Since  1892  the  cylindrical  form  of  silos  has  become 
more  and  more  general.  These  silos  have  the  advantage 
over  all  other  kinds  in  point  of  cost  and  convenience,  as 
well  as  quality  of  the  silage  obtained.  We  shall,  later 
on,  have  an  occasion  to  refer  to  the  relative  cost  of  the 
various  forms  of  silos,  and  shall  here  only  mention  a  few 
points  in  favor  of  the  round  silos. 

1.  Round    silos    can    be    built    cheaper    than    square 
ones,  because  it  takes  less  lumber  per  cubic  foot  capacity, 
and  because  lighter  material  may  be  used  in  their  con- 
struction.   The  sills  and  studdings  here  do  no  work  ex- 
cept to  support  the  roof,  since  the  lining  acts  as  a  hoop 
to  prevent  spreading  of  the  walls. 

2.  One  of  the  essentials  in  silo  building  is  that  there 
shall  be  a  minimum  of  surface  and  wall  exposure  of  the 
silage,    as    both    the    cost    and    the    danger    from    losses 
through   spoiling   are   thereby   reduced.    The   round   silos 
are  superior  to  all  other  forms  in  regard  to  this  point, 
as  will  be  readily  seen  from  an  example:   A  rectangular 
silo,  16x32x24  feet,  has  the  same  number  of  square  feet 
of  wall  surface  as  a  square  silo,  24x24  feet,  and  of  the 
same  depth,  or  as  a  circular  silo  30  feet  in  diameter  and 
of  the  same  depth;    but  these  silos  will  hold  about  the 
following  quantities  of  silage:    Rectangular  silo,  246  tons; 
square  silo,  276  tons;    circular  silo,  338  tons.    Less  lum- 
ber will,  therefore,  be  needed  to  hold  a  certain  quantity 
of  silage  in  case  of  square  silos  than  in  case  of  rectangular 


56  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 

ones,  and  less  for  cylindrical  silos  than  for  square  ones, 
the  cylindrical  form  being,  therefore,  the  most  economical 
of  the  three  types. 

3.  Silage  of  all  kinds  will  usually  begin  to  spoil  after 
a  few  days,  if  left  exposed  to  the  air;  hence  the  necessity 
of  considering  the  extent  of  surface  exposure  of  silage  in 
the  silo  while  it  is  being  fed  out.  In  a  deep  silo  there  is 
less  silage  exposed  to  the  surface  layer  in  proportion  to 
the  contents  than  in  a  shallow  one.  Experience  has  taught 
us  that  if  silage  is  fed  down  at  a  rate  slower  than  1.2  inches 
daily,  molding  is  liable  to  set  in.  About  two  inches  of  the 
top  layer  of  the  silage  should  be  fed  out  daily  during  cold 
weather  in  order  to  prevent  the  silage  from  spoiling;  in 
warm  weather  about  three  inches  must  be  taken  off  daily; 
If  a  deeper  layer  of  silage  can  be  fed  off  daily,  there  will 
be  less  waste  of  food  materials;  some  farmers  thus  plan 
to  feed  off  5  or  6  inches  of  silage  daily.  The  form  of  the 
silo  must  therefore  be  planned,  according  to  the  size  of 
the  herd,  with  special  reference  to  this  point.  Professor 
King  estimates  that  there  should  be  a  feeding  surface  in 
the  silo  of  about  five  square  feet  per  cow  in  the  herd;  a 
herd  of  thirty  cows  will  then  require  150  square  feet  of 
feeding  surface,  or  the  inside  diameter  of  the  silo  should 
be  14  feet;  for  a  herd  of  forty  cows  a  silo  with  a  diameter 
of  16  feet  will  be  required;  for  fifty  cows,  a  diameter  of 
18  feet;  for  one  hundred  cows,  a  diameter  of  251/4  feet,  etc. 

He  gives  the  following  tables  showing  the  number  of 
cows  required  to  eat  1.2  to  2  inches  of  silage  daily  in  silos 
24  to  30  feet  deep,  assuming  that  they  are  fed  40  Ibs.  of 
silage  daily  for  180  or  240  days. 


DIAMETER  AND  DEPTH  OF  THE  SILO. 


57 


RELATION  OF  HORIZONTAL  FEEDING  AREA  AND   NUMBER 
OF  COWS  KEPT,  FOR  SILOS  24  AND  30  FEET  DEEP. 


FEED  FOR  240  DAYS. 

FEED  FOR  180  DAYS. 

Silo 

Silo 

Silo 

Silo 

NO. 

24  feet  deep. 

30  feet  deep. 

24  feet  deep. 

30  feet  deep. 

OF 

Rate 

Rate 

Rate 

Rate 

COWS. 

1.2  in.  daily. 

1.5  in.  daily. 

1.6  in.  daily. 

2  in.  daily. 

Tons. 

Inside 
diam. 

Tons. 

Inside 
diam. 

Tons. 

Inside 
diam. 

Tons. 

Inside 
diam. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

10.. 

48 

12 

48 

10 

36 

10 

36 

9 

15... 

72 

15 

72 

12 

54 

13 

54 

11 

20... 

96 

17 

96 

14 

72 

15 

72 

12 

25... 

120 

19 

120 

16 

90 

16 

90 

14 

30... 

144 

21 

144 

18 

108 

18 

108 

15 

35... 

168 

22 

168 

19 

126 

19 

126 

16 

40... 

192 

24 

192 

20 

144 

21 

144 

18 

45... 

216 

26 

216 

21 

162 

22 

162 

19 

50... 

240 

27 

240 

23 

180 

23 

180 

20 

60... 

288 

29 

288 

25 

216 

25 

216 

21 

70... 

336 

32 

336 

27 

252 

27 

252 

23 

80... 

384 

34 

384 

29 

288 

29 

288 

25 

90... 

432 

36 

432 

30 

324 

31 

324 

26 

100... 

480 

38 

480 

32 

360 

33 

360 

28 

In  choosing  diameters  and  depths  for  silos  for  par- 
ticular herds,  individual  needs  and  conditions  must  decide 
which  is  best.  It  may  be  said,  in  general,  that  for  the 
smaller  sizes  of  silos  the  more  shallow  ones  will  be  some- 
what cheaper  in  construction  and  be  more  easily  filled  with 
small  powers.  For  large  herds  the  deeper  types  are  best 
and  cheapest. 

One  of  the  most  common  mistakes  made  in  silo  con- 
struction is  that  of  making  it  too  large  in  diameter  for  the 
amount  of  stock  to  be  fed  silage.  Whenever  silage  heats 
and  molds  badly  on  or  below  the  feeding  surface  heavy 


58  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 

loss  in  feeding  value  is  being  sustained,  and  in  such  cases 
the  herd  should  be  increased  so  that  the  losses  may  be 
prevented  by  mcfre  rapid  feeding.  (King.) 

Location  of  the  Silo. 

The  location  of  the  silo  is  a  matter  of  great  impor- 
tance, which  has  to  be  decided  upon  at  the  start.  The  feed- 
ing of  the  silage  is  an  every-day  job  during  the  whole 
winter  and  spring,  and  twice  a  day  at  that.  Other  things 
being  equal,  the  nearest  available  place  is  therefore  the 
best.  The  silo  should  be  as  handy  to  get  at  from  the  barn 
as  possible.  The  condition  of  the  ground  must  be  con- 
sidered. If  the  ground  is  dry  outside  the  barn,  the  best 
plan  to  follow  is  to  build  the  silo  there,  in  connection  with 
the  barn,  going  four  feet  to  six  feet  below  the  surface,  and 
providing  for  door  opening  directly  into  the  barn.  The  bot- 
tom of  the  silo  should  be  on  or  below  the  level  where  the 
cattle  stand,  and,  if  practicable,  the  silage  should  be  moved 
out  and  placed  before  the  cows  at  a  single  handling.  While 
it  is  important  to  have  the  silo  near  at  hand,  it  should  be 
so  located,  in  case  the  silage  is  used  for  milk  production, 
that  silage  odors  do  not  penetrate  the  whole  stable,  at 
milking  or  other  times.  Milk  is  very  sensitive  to  odors, 
and  unless  care  is  taken  to  feed  silage  after  milking,  and 
to  have  pure  air,  free  from  silage  odor,  in  the  stables  at 
the  time  of  milking,  there  will  be  a  silage  flavor  to  the 
milk.  This  will  not  be  sufficiently  pronounced  to  be  noticed 
by  most  people,  and  some  people  cannot  notice  it  at  all; 
but  when  a  person  is  suspicious,  he  can  generally  discover 
it.  So  far  as  is  known  this  odor  is  not  discernable  in  either 
butter  or  cheese  made  from  silage-flavored  milk,  nor  does 
it  seem  to  affect  the  keeping  qualities  of  the  milk  in  any 
way. 

Different  Types  of  Silo  Structures. 

Silos  may  be  built  of  wood,  stone,  brick  or  cement,  or 
partly  of  one  and  partly  of  another  of  these  materials. 
Wooden  silos  may  be  built  of  several  layers  of  thin  boards 


THE  VARIOUS  TYPES  OF  SILOS.  59 

nailed  to  uprights,  or  or  single  planks  (staves),  or  may  be 
plastered  inside.  The  material  used  will  largely  be  de- 
termined by  local  conditions;  where  lumber  is  cheap,  and 
stone  high,  wooden  silos  will  generally  be  built;  where  the 
opposite  is  true,  stone  or  brick  silos  will  have  the  advan- 
tage in  point  of  cheapness,  while  concrete  silos  are  likely 
to  be  preferred  where  great  permanency  is  desired  or 
where  cobble-stones  are  at  hand  in  abundance,  and  lumber 
or  stone  are  hard  to  get  at  a  reasonable  cost.  So  far  as 
the  quality  of  the  silage  made  in  any  of  these  kinds  0!f 
silos  is  concerned,  there  is  no  difference  when  the  silos 
are  properly  built.  The  longevity  of  stone  and  concrete 
silos  is  usually  greater  than  that  of  wooden  silos,  since 
the  latter  are  more  easily  attacked  by  the  silage  juices 
and  are  apt  to  decay  in  places  after  a  number  of  years, 
unless  special  precautions  are  taken  to  preserve  them.  A 
well-built  and  well-cared-for  wooden  silo  should,  however, 
last  almost  indefinitely. 

As  regards  the  form  of  the  silo,  it  may  be  built  in 
rectangular  form,  square,  octagon  or  round.  We  have 
already  seen  that  the  most  economical  of  these  is  ordi- 
narily the  round  form,  both  because  in  such  silos  there  is 
less  wall  space  per  cubic  unit  of  capacity,  and  in  case  of 
wooden  round  silos,  lighter  material  can  be  used  in  their 
construction.  The  only  place  where  silos  of  square  or 
rectangular  form  are  built  now  is  inside  of  barns, 
where  they  fit  in  better  than  a  round  structure.  We  shall 
later  on  give  directions  for  building  silos  inside  of  a  barn, 
but  shall  now  go  over  to  a  discussion  of  the  various  forms 
of  round  silos  that  are  apt  to  be  met  with.  More  round 
wooden  silos  have  been  built  during  late  years  in  this 
country  than  of  all  other  kinds  of  silos  combined,  and  this 
type  of  silo,  either  built  of  uprights  lined  inside  and  out- 
side with  two  layers  of  half-inch  boards,  or  of  one  thick- 
ness of  staves,  will  doubtless  be  the  main  silo  type  of  the 
future;  hence  we  shall  give  full  information  as  to  their 
building,  and  shall  then  briefly  speak  of  the  other  forms 
mentioned  which  may  be  considered  preferable  In  ex- 
ceptional cases. 


60  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 

Round  Wooden  Silos. 

Round  wooden  silos  were  first  described,  and  their  use 
advocated,  in  Bulletin  No.  28,  issued  by  the  Wisconsin 
Station  in  July,  1891,  and  hence  have  come  to  be  known 
as  "Wisconsin  Silos."  The  first  detailed  and  illustrated 
description  of  this  type  of  silos  was  published  in  this  bulle- 
tin; since  that  time  it  has  been  described  in  several  bulle- 
tins and  reports  issued  by  the  station  mentioned,  and  in 
numerous  publications  from  other  experiment  stations. 
All  writers  who  have  discussed  the  question  of  silo  con- 
struction agree  that  this  form  of  silos  is  admirable,  and 
the  best  that  can  be  put  up  where  a  durable,  first-class  silo 
of  a  moderate  cost  is  wanted.  This  type,  and  the  one  to  be 
described  in  the  following,  the  stave  silo,  are  practically 
the  only  kind  of  wooden  silos  that  have  been  built  in  this 
country  during  late  years,  except  where  unusual  conditions 
have  prevailed,  that  would  make  some  other  kind  of  silo 
structure  preferable. 

The  following  description  of  the  Wisconsin  silo  is  from 
the  pen  of  Prof.  King,  the  originator  of  this  type  of  silos, 
as  published  in  Bulletin  No.  83  of  the  Wisconsin  Station 
(dated  May,  1900). 

The  Foundation — There  should  be  a  good,  substantial 
masonry  foundation  for  all  forms  of  wood  silos,  and  the 
woodwork  should  everywhere  be  at  least  12  inches  above 
the  earth,  to  prevent  decay  from  dampness.  There  are 
few  conditions  where  it  will  not  be  desirable  to  have  the 
bottom  of  the  silo  3  feet  or  more  below  the  feeding  floor 
of  the  stable,  and  this  will  require  not  less  than  4  to  6 
feet  of  stone,  brick,  or  concrete  wall.  For  a  silo  30  feet 
deep  the  foundation  wall  of  stone  should  be  1.5  to  2  feet 
thick. 

The  inside  of  the  foundation  wall  may  be  made  flush 
with  the  woodwork  above,  or  nearly  so,  as  represented  in 
Fig.  1,  or  the  building  may  stand  in  the  ordinary  way,  flush 
with  the  outside  of  the  stone  wall,  as  represented  in  Fig. 
2.  In  both  cases  the  wall  should  be  finished  sloping  as 
shown  in  the  drawings. 


ILLUSTRATION. 


Fig.  1.    Showing  method  of  placing  all-wood  silos  on  stone 
foundations,  with  pit  dug  out  to  increase  depth. 


62  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 

So  far  as  the  keeping  of  the  silage  is  concerned  it 
makes  little  difference  which  of  these  types  of  construc- 
tion is  adopted.  The  outward  pressure  on  the  silo  wall 
is  greater  where  the  wall  juts  into  the  silo,  but  the  wall 
is  better  protected  against  the  weather.  Where  the  project- 
ing wall  is  outside,  the  silo  has  a  greater  capacity,  but 
there  is  a  strong  tendency  for  the  wall  to  crack  and  allow 
rain  to  penetrate  it.  Where  this  plan  is  followed  it  is 
important  to  finish  the  sloping  surface  with  cement,  or  to 
shingle  it,  to  keep  out  the  water. 

Bottom  of  the  Silo. — After  the  silo  has  been  completed 
the  ground  forming  the  bottom  should  be  thoroughly 
tamped  so  as  to  be  solid,  and  then  covered  with  two  or 
three  inches  of  good  concrete  made  of  1  of  cement  to  3 
or  4  of  sand  or  gravel.  The  amount  of  silage  which  will 
spoil  on  a  hard  clay  floor  will  not  be  large,  but  enough  to 
pay  a  good  interest  on  the  money  invested  in  the  cement 
floor.  If  the  bottom  of  the  silo  is  in  dry  sand  or  gravel 
the  cement  bottom  is  imperative  to  shut  out  the  soil  air. 

Tying  the  Top  of  the  Stone  Wall. — In  case  the  wood 
portion  of  the  silo  rises  24  or  more  feet  above  the  stone 
work,  and  the  diameter  is  more  than  18  feet,  it  will  be 
prudent  to  stay  the  top  of  the  wall  in  some  way. 

If  the  woodwork  rises  from  the  outer  edge  of  the  wall, 
then  building  the  wall  up  with  cement  so  as  to  cover  the 
sill  and  lining  as  represented  in  Figs.  3  and  4  will  give 
the  needed  strength,  because  the  woodwork  will  act  as  a 
hoop;  but  if  the  silo  stands  at  the  inner  face  of  the  wall, 
it  will  be  set  to  lay  pieces  of  iron  rod  in  the  wall  near  the 
top  to  act  as  a  hoop. 

Where  the  stone  portion  of  the  silo  is  high  enough  to 
need  a  door,  it  is  best  to  leave  enough  wall  between  the 
top  and  the  sill  to  allow  a  tie  rod  of  iron  to  be  bedded  in 
thig  portion.  So,  too,  the  lower  door  in  the  woodwork  of  the 
silo  should  have  a  full  foot  in  width  below  it  of  lining  and 
siding  uncut  to  act  as  a  hoop,  where  the  prewure  is 
strongest. 


ILLUSTRATION. 


.  2.  Showing  an  all-wood  round  silo  on  stone  foundation. 
H  represents  a  method  of  sawing  boards  for  the  conical 
roof. 


64 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 


»  3,  Showing  method  of  construction  for  ventilating  the 
spaces  between  the  studding  in  all-wood  and  lathed-and- 
plastered  silos. 


THE    STONE   FOUNDATION. 


65 


Forming  the  Sill. — The  sill  in  the  all-wood  silo  may 
be  made  of  a  single  2x4  cut  in  2-foot  lengths,  with  the 
ends  beveled  so  that  they  may  be  toe-nailed  together  to 
form  circle  (Fig.  5). 

Setting  the  Studding. — The  studding  of  the  all-wood 
round  silo  need  not  be  larger  than  2x4  unless  the  diam- 


Flg.  4.    Showing  construction  of  all-wood  silo,  and  connec- 
tion with  wall,  flush  with  outside. 
5 


66 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 


eter  is  to  exceed  30  feet,  but  they  should  be  set  as  close 
together  as  one  foot  from  center  to  center,  as  represented 
in  Fig.  6.  This  number  of  studs  is  not  required  for  strength 
but  they  are  needed  in  order  to  bring  the  two  layers 
of  lining  very  close  together,  so  as  to  press  the  paper 
closely  and  prevent  air  from  entering  where  the  paper  laps. 
Where  studding  longer  than  20  feet  are  needed,  short 
lengths  may  be  lapped  one  foot  and  simply  spiked  together 
before  they  are  set  in  place  on  the  wall.  This  will  be 
cheaper  than  to  pay  the  higher  price  for  long  lengths.  All 
studding  should  be  given  the  exact  length  desired  before 
putting  them  in  place. 


Fig.  S.   Showing  method  of  making  the  sill  of  round  wood 
silos. 


THE  "WISCONSIN"  SILO.  6? 

to  stay  the  studding  a  post  should  be  set  in  the 
ground  in  the  center  of  the  silo  long  enough  to  reach  about 
five  feet  above  the  sill,  and  to  this  stays  may  be  nailed  to 
hold  in  place  the  alternate  studs  until  the  lower  5  feet  of 
outside  sheeting  has  been  put  on.  The  studs  should  be 
set  first  at  the  angles  formed  in  the  sill  and  carefully 
stayed  and  plumbed  on  the  side  toward  the  center.  When 
a  number  of  these  have  been  set  they  should  be  tied 
together  by  bending  a  strip  of  half-inch  sheeting  around 
the  outside  as  high  up  as  a  man  can  reach,  taking  care 
to  plumb  each  stud  on  the  side  before  nailing.  When  the 


Fig.  6.   Showing  the  plan  of  studding  for  the  all-wood,  brick- 
lined  or  lathed-and-plastered  silo. 


68 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 


alternate  studs  have  beeen  set  in  this  way  the  balance  may 
be  placed  and  toe-nailed  to  the  sill  and  stayed  to  the 
rib,  first  plumbing  them  sideways  and  toward  the  center. 

Setting    Studding   for   Doors.  —  On   the   side   of  the   silo 
where  the  doors  are  to  be  placed  the  studding  should  be 


M 


Fig.  7 »    Showing  'the  construction  of  the  door  for  the  all- 
wood  silo. 


THE  "WISCONSIN"  SILO.  69 

set  double  and  the  distance  apart  to  give  the  desired  width. 
A  stud  should  be  set  between  the  two  door  studs  as  though 
no  door  were  to  be  there,  and  the  doors  cut  out  at  the; 
places  desired  afterwards.  The  construction  of  the  door 
is  represented  in  Fig.  7. 

The  doors  are  usually  made  about  2  feet  wide  and 
from  2y2  to  3  feet  high,  and  placed  one  above  the  other 
at  suitable  distances  apart.  It  has  been  suggested  that  to 
insure  security  a  strip  of  tar  paper  should  be  placed  the 
entire  length  of  the  silo  on  the  inside  over  the  doors. 

Silo  Sheeting  and  Siding. — The  character  of  the  siding 
and  sheeting  will  vary  considerably  according  to  condi- 
tions, and  the  size  of  the  silo. 

Where  the  diameter  of  the  silo  is  less  than  18  feet  in- 
side and  not  much  attention  need  be  paid  to  frost,  a  single 
layer  of  beveled  siding,  rabbetted  on  the  inside  of  the 
thick  edge  deep  enough  to  receive  the  thin  edge  of  the 
board  below,  will  be  all  that  is  absolutely  necessary  on 
the  outside  for  strength  and  protection  against  weather. 
This  statement  is  made  on  the  supposition  that  the  lining 
is  made  of  two  layers  of  fencing  split  in  two,  the  three 
layers  constituting  the  hoops. 

If  the  silo  is  larger  than  18  feet  inside  diameter,  there 
should  be  a  layer  of  half-inch  sheeting  outside,  under  the 
Biding. 

If  basswood  is  used  for  siding,  care  should  be  taken 
to  paint  it  at  once,  otherwise  it  will  warp  badly  if  it  gets 
wet  before  painting. 

In  applying  the  sheeting  begin  at  the  bottom,  carry- 
ing the  work  upward  until  staging  is  needed,  following  this 
at  once  with  the  siding.  Two  8-penny  nails  should  be  used 
in  each  board  in  every  stud,  and  to  prevent  the  walls  from 
getting  "out  of  round"  the  succeeding  course  of  boards 
should  begin  on  the  next  stud,  thus  making  the  ends  of 
the  boards  break  joints. 

When  the  stagings  are  put  up,  new  stays  should  be 
tacked  to  the  studs  above,  taking  care  to  plumb  each 
one  from  side  to  side;  the  siding  itself  will  bring  them 


70 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 


into  place  and  keep  them  plumb  the  other  way,  if  care 
Is  taken  to  start  new  courses  as  described  above. 

Forming  the  Plate. — When  the  last  staging  is  up  the 
plate  should  be  formed  by  spiking  2x4's  cut  in  two-foot 
lengths,  in  the  manner  of  sill,  and  as  represented  in  Fig. 
8,  down  upon  the  tops  of  the  studs,  using  two  courses, 
making  the  second  break  joints  with  the  first. 

The  Lining  of  the  Wooden  Silo. — There  are  several 
ways  of  making  a  good  lining  for  the  all-wood  round  silo, 
but  which  ever  method  is  adopted  it  must  be  kept  in  mind 
that  there  are  two  very  important  ends  to  be  secured  with 


Fig.  8.  Showing  construction  of  conical  roof  of  round  silo, 
where  rafters  are  not  used-  The  outer  circle  is  the  lower 
edge  of  the  roof. 


THE  "WISCONSIN"  SILO.  71 

a  certainty.  These  are  (1)  a  lining  which  shall  be  and 
remain  strictly  air-tight,  (2)  a  lining  which  will  be  reason- 
ably permanent. 

All  Wood  Lining  of  4-inch  Flooring. — If  one  is  willing 
to  permit  a  loss  of  10  to  12  per  cent,  of  the  silage  by  heat- 
ing, then  a  lining  of  tongued  and  grooved  ordinary  4-inch 
white  pine  flooring  may  be  made  in  the  manner  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  9,  where  the  flooring  runs  up  and  down. 
When  this  lumber  is  put  on  in  the  seasoned  condition  a 
single  layer  would  make  tighter  walls  than  can  be  secured 
with  the  stave  silo  where  the  staves  are  neither  beveled 
nor  tongued  and  grooved. 

In  the  silos  smaller  than  18  feet  inside  diameter  the 
two  layers  of  boards  outside  will  give  the  needed  strength, 
but  when  the  silo  is  larger  than  this  and  deep,  there  would 
be  needed  a  layer  of  the  split  fencing  on  the  inside  for 
strength;  and  if  in  addition  to  this  there  is  added  a  layer 
of  3-ply  Giant  P.  and  B.  paper  a  lining  of  very  superior 
quality  would  be  thus  secured. 

Lining  of  Half-inch  Boards  and  Paper. — Where  paper 
is  used  to  make  the  joints  between  boards  air-tight,  as 
represented  in  Fig.  4,  it  is  extremely  important  that  a 
quality  which  will  not  decay,  and  which  is  both  acid  and 
water-proof  be  used.  A  paper  which  is  not  acid  and  water- 
proof will  disintegrate  at  the  joints  in  a  very  short 
time,  and  thus  leave  the  lining  very  defective. 

The  best  paper  for  silo  purposes  with  which  we  are 
acquainted  is  a  3-ply  Giant  P.  and  B.  brand  manufactured 
by  the  Standard  Paint  Co.,  of  Chicago  and  New  York.  It 
is  thick,  strong,  and  acid  and  water-proof.  A  silo  lining 
with  two  thicknesses  of  good  fencing  have  only  small 
knots,  and  these  thoroughly  sound  and  not  black,  will 
make  an  excellent  lining.  Great  care  should  be  taken  to 
have  the  two  layers  of  boards  break  joints  at  their  cen- 
ters, and  the  paper  should  lap  not  less  than  8  to  12  inches. 

The  great  danger  with  this  type  of  lining  will  be  that 
the  boards  may  not -press  the  two  layers  of  paper  together 
close  enough  but  that  some  air  may  rise  between  the  two 


72 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 


sheets  where  they  overlap,  and  thus  gain  access  to  the 
silage.  It  would  be  an  excellent  precaution  to  take  to 
tack  down  closely  with  small  carpet  tacks  the  edges  of  the 
paper  where  they  overlap,  and  if  this  is  done  a  lap  of  4 
inches  will  be  sufficient. 


Fig.  9.  Showing  the  construction  of  the  all-wood  round  silo 
where  the  lining  is  made  of  ordinary  four-inch  flooring 
running  up  and  down,  and  nailed  to  girts  cut  in  between  the 
studding  every  four  feet. 


THE  "WISCONSIN"  SILO.  73 

The  first  layer  of  lining  should  be  put  on  with  8-penny 
nails,  two  in  each  board  and  stud,  and  the  second  or  inner 
layer  with  10-penny  nails,  the  fundamental  object  being  to 
draw  the  two  layers  of  boards  as  closely  together  as 
possible. 

Such  a  lining  as  this  will  be  very  durable  because 
the  paper  will  keep  all  the  lumber  djy  except  the  inner 
layer  of  half-inch  boards,  and  this  will  be  kept  wet  by 
the  paper  and  silage  until  empty,  and  then  the  small 
thickness  of  wood  will  dry  too  quickly  to  permit  rotting 
to  set  in. 

A  still  more  substantial  lining  of  the  same  type  may 
be  secured  by  using  two  layers  of  paper  between  three 
layers  of  boards,  as  represented  in  Fig.  4,  and  if  the  cli- 
mate is  not  extremely  severe,  or  if  the  silo  is  only  to  be 
fed  from  in  the  summer,  it  would  be  better  to  do  away 
with  the  layer  of  sheeting  and  paper  outside,  putting  on 
the  inside,  thus  securing  two  layers  of  paper  and  three 
layers  of  boards  for  the  lining  with  the  equivalent  of  only 
2  inches  of  lumber. 

The  Silo  Roof. 

The  roof  of  cylindrical  silos  may  be  made  in  several 
ways,  but  the  simplest  type  of  construction  and  the  one 
requiring  the  least  amount  of  material  is  that  represented 
in  Figs.  7  and  8,  and  which  is  the  cone. 

If  the  silo  is  not  larger  than  15  feet  inside  diameter 
no  rafters  need  be  used,  and  only  a  single  circle  like  that 
in  the  center  of  Fig.  8,  this  is  made  of  2-inch  stuff  cut  in 
sections  in  the  form  of  a  circle  and  two  layers  spiked 
together,  breaking  joints. 

The  roof  boards  are  put  on  by  nailing  them  to  the 
inner  circle  and  to  the  plate,  as  shown  in  the  drawing, 
the  boards  having  been  sawed  diagonally  as  represented 
at  H,  Fig.  2,  making  the  wide  and  narrow  ends  the  same 
relative  widths  as  the  circumferences  of  the  outer  edge 
of  the  roof  and  of  the  inner  circle. 


14  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 

If  the  silo  has  an  inside  diameter  exceeding  15  feet 
it  will  be  necessary  to  use  two  or  three  hoops  according 
to  diameter.  When  the  diameter  is  greater  than  25  feet 
it  will  usually  be  best  to  use  rafters  and  headers  cut  in 
for  circles  4  feet  apart  to  nail  the  roof  boards  to,  which 
are  cut  as  represented  at  H,  Fig.  2. 

The  conical  roof  may  be  covered  with  ordinary  shingles, 
splitting  those  wider  than  8  inches.  By  laying  the  butts 
of  the  shingles  %  to  %  of  an  inch  apart  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  taper  any  of  the  shingles  except  a  fewft  courses 
near  the  peak  of  the  roof. 

In  laying  the  shingles  to  a  true  circle,  and  with  the 
right  exposure  to  the  weather,  a  good  method  is  to  use  a 
strip  of  wood  as  a  radius  which  works  on  a  center  set 
at  the  peak  of  the  roof  and  provided  with  a  nail  or  pencil 
to  make  a  mark  on  the  shingle  where  the  butts  of  the 
next  course  are  to  come.  The  radius  may  be  bored  with 
a  series  oi  holes  the  right  distance  apart  to  slip  over  the 
center  pivot,  or  the  nail  may  be  drawn  and  reset  as  de- 
sired. Some  carpenters  file  a  notch  in  the  shingling 
hatchet,  and  use  this  to  bring  the  shingle  to  place. 

Ventilation  of  the  Silo. 

Every  silo  which  has  a  roof  should  be  provided  with 
ample  ventilation  to  keep  the  under  side  of  the  roof  dry, 
and  in  the  case  of  wood  silos,  to  prevent  the  walls  and 
lining  from  rotting.  One  of  the  most  serious  mistakes  in 
the  early  construction  of  wood  silos  was  the  making  of  the 
walls  with  dead-air  spaces,  which,  on  account  of  damp- 
ness from  the  silage,  led  to  rapid  "dry-rot"  of  the  lining. 

In  the  wood  silo  and  in  the  brick  lined  silo  it  is  im- 
portant to  provide  ample  ventilation  for  the  spaces  be- 
tween the  studs,  as  well  as  for  the  roof  and  the  inside 
of  the  silo,  and  a  good  method  of  doing  this  is  represented 
in  Fig.  3,  where  the  lower  portion  represents  the  sill  and 
the  upper  the  plate  of  the  silo.  Between  each  pair  of 
studs  where  needed  a  1^-inch  auger  hole  to  admit  air  is 


PAINTING  THE  SILO  LINING.  75 

bored  through  the  siding  and  sheeting  and  covered  with 
a  piece  of  wire  netting  to  keep  out  mice  and  rats.  At  the 
top  of  the  silo  on  the  inside,  the  lining  is  only  covered  to 
within  two  inches  of  the  plate  and  this  space  is  covered 
with  wire  netting  to  prevent  silage  from  being  thrown 
over  when  filling.  This  arrangement  permits  dry  air  from 
outside  to  enter  at  the  bottom  between  each  pair  of  studs 
and  to  pass  up  and  into  the  silo,  thus  keeping  the  lining 
and  studding  dry  and  at  the  same  time  drying  the  under 
side  of  the  roof  and  the  inside  of  the  lining  as  fast  as 
exposed.  In  those,  cases  where  the  sill  is  made  of  2x4's 
cut  in  2-foot  lengths  there  will  be  space  enough  left  be- 
tween the  curved  edge  of  the  siding  and  sheeting  and  the 
sill  for  air  to  enter  so  that  no  holes  need  be  bored  as  de- 
scribed above  and  represented  in  Fig.  3.  The  openings 
at  the  plate  should  always  be  provided  and  the  silo  should 
have  some  sort  of  ventilator  in  the  roof.  This  ventilator 
may  take  the  form  of  a  cupola  to  serve  for  an  ornament 
as  well,  or  it  may  be  a  simple  galvanized  iron  pipe  12  to 
24  inches  in  diameter,  rising  a  foot  or  two  through  the 
peak  of  the  roof. 

Painting  the  Silo  Lining. 

It  is  impossible  to  so  paint  a  wood  lining  that  it  will 
not  become  wholly  or  partly  saturated  with  the  silage 
juices.  This  being  true,  when  the  lining  is  again  exposed 
when  feeding  the  silage  out,  the  paint  greatly  retards  the 
drying  of  the  wood  work  and  the  result  is  decay  sets  in, 
favored  by  prolonged  dampness.  For  this  reason  it  is 
best  to  leave  a  wood  lining  naked  or  to  use  some  antiseptic 
which  does  not  form  a  water-proof  coat. 

The  cost  of  such  a  silo  as  that  described  in  the  fore- 
going pages,  is  estimated  by  Prof.  King  at  about  12 
cents  per  square  foot  of  outside  surface,  when  the  lining 
consists  of  two  layers  of  half-inch  split  fencing,  with  a 
8-ply  Giant  P.  &  B.  paper  between,  and  with  one  layer  of 
split  fencing  outside,  covered  with  rabbetted  house  siding. 


76  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 

If  built  inside  of  the  barn,  without  a  roof  and  not  painted, 
the  cost  would  be  reduced  3  cents  per  square  foot,  or  more. 
Silos  of  this  type,  30  feet  deep,  built  outside,  provided 
with  a  roof  and  including  6  feet  of  foundation  are  stated 
to  cost  as  follows:  13  feet  inside  diameter  (80  tons  capac- 
ity), $183.00;' 15  feet  diameter  (105  tons  capacity),  $211.00; 
21  feet  diameter  (206  tons  capacity),  $298.00;  and  25  feet 
diameter  (300  tons  capacity),  $358.00. 

Complete  specifications  and  building  plans  for  a  300- 
ton  silo,  of  the  kind  described  in  the  preceding  pages,  are 
given  in  Prof.  Woll's  Book  on  Silage.  The  dimensions  of 
this  silo  are:  Diameter,  26  feet;  height,  30  feet. 

According  to  our  present  knowledge  this  form  of  silo 
is  most  likely  the  best  that  can  be  built;  it  is  a  somewhat 
complicated  structure,  calls  for  more  time  and  skill  for 
its  construction,  and  costs  more  than  other  kinds  of 
wooden  circular  silos  especially  more  than  the  stave  silo 
soon  to  be  described;  but  once  built  needs  but  little  at- 
tention and  it  is  durable  and  economical,  being  pr&c- 
tically  air-tight,  the  losses  of  food  materials  in  the  siloed 
fodder  are  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Modifications  of  the  Wisconsin  Silo. 

Several  modifications  of  the  Wisconsin  Silo  have  been 
proposed  and  have  given  good  satisfaction;  one  is  de- 
scribed by  Prof.  Plumb  in  Purdue  Experiment  Station  Bul- 
letin No.  91,  as  follows: 

The  studs  are  18  inches  apart,  and  for  about  half  way 
up  there  are  three  layers  of  sheeting  against  the  studs 
with  tarred  paper  between.  The  upper  half  of  the  studs 
has  but  two  layers  of  sheeting.  The  sheeting  was  made 
by  taking  2x6-inch  white  pine  planks  and  sawing  to  make 
four  boards.  The  silo  rests  on  a  stone  wall  18  inches  deep 
and  16  inches  wide.  It  is  30  feet  high,  18  feet  4  inches 
inside  diameter,  and  holds  about  1-50  tons.  An  inexpensive 
but  durable  roof  was  placed  upon  it.  The  cost  of  this 


PLASTERED  ROUND  WOODEN  SILOS.  77 

structure  is  as  follows:  As  the  work  was  all  done  by  the 
regular  farm  help  at  odd  hours,  the  item  of  labor  is  given 
at  estimated  cost:  Studding,  $13.03;  sheeting,  $63.00;  5 
rolls  of  paper,  $6.25;  nails,  $2.40;  cement  for  wall,  $2.40; 
labor,  $20.00;  total,  $107.08.  The  owner  of  the  silo  was 
so  pleased  with  the  service  this  one  had  rendered  since 
its  construction,  that  he  built  another  like  it  during  the 
summer  of  1902.  This  silo  is  connected  by  a  covered  pas- 
sage and  chute  with  the  feeding  floor  of  the  cattle  barn. 

The  construction  of  this  type  of  silo  calls  for  as  much 
care  in  putting  on  sheeting,  making  doors  and  keeping 
out  the  air  at  these  places  and  at  the  foundation,  as  it 
required  with  the  more  expensive  forms  previously  de- 
scribed. The  need  for  outer  siding  will  depend  in  a  large 
measure  on  circumstances.  The  farmer  building  the  silo 
(living  in  Central  Indiana)  has  had  no  trouble  with  his 
silage  freezing.  In  Northern  Indiana  the  siding  would 
naturally  be  more  necessary  than  in  the  southern  part  of 
this  state,  but  generally  speaking,  siding  is  not  necessary, 
although  it  does  materially  add  to  the  attractiveness  of 
the  silo. 

Plastered  Round  Wooden  Silos. 

Plastered  round  wooden  silos  have  met  with  favor 
among  farmers  who  have  tried  them,  and  are  preferred 
by  many  for  either  the  original  or  the  modified  Wisconsin 
silo,  on  account  of  their  ease  of  construction  and  their 
durability.  In  the  experience  of  H.  B.  Gurler,  a  well  known 
Illinois  dairyman,  who  has  built  several  silos  on  his  farm 
in  the  course  of  the  last  dozen  years,  the  walls  of  plastered 
silos  keep  perfectly  and  there  is  no  waste  from  moldy 
silage  along  the  wall;  neither  is  there  any  difficulty  about 
cracking  of  the  plaster,  if  this  is  put  on  properly  and  a 
good  quality  of  cement  is  used.  Gurler  described  the  con- 
struction of  his  plastered  silo  in  a  recent  number  of 
Breeder's  Gazette,  accompanying  his  description  with  build- 
ing plans  of  his  silo.  We  have  reproduced  the  latter 
changed  and  improved  in  some  points  of  minor  impor- 


78 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 


tance,  and  give  below  a  brief  description  of  the  method  of 
building  silos  of  this  type.    (See  Figs.  9%  and  10.)* 

The  foundation  may  be  made  of  stone,  brick  or  ce- 
ment, and  is  carried  to  the  proper  distance  above  ground. 
Sills  composed  of  pieces  of  2x4,  two  feet  long,  beveled 
at  the  ends  so  as  to  be  toe-nailed  together  to  form  a 
circle  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  interior  diameter  of 
the  silo,  are  placed  on  the  foundation  bedded  in  asphalt 
or  cemented  mortar,  and  on  this  the  studding  is  erected, 
using  two  by  fours,  placed  15  or  16  inches  apart.  Inside 
sheeting  was  secured  by  having  6-inch  fencing  re-sawed, 
making  the  material  a  little  less  than  ^-inch  thick.  On 
this  was  nailed  laths  made  from  the  same  material,  the 


i » fi  ii  iiiinrt 


11 


Fig.  9/2.  Elevation  and  section  of  plastered  round  ivooden 
silo. 


PLASTERED  ROUND  WOODEN  SILOS. 


79 


laths  being  made  with  beveled  edges  so  that  when  nailed 
onto  the  sheeting  horizontally,  the  same  way  as  the  sheet- 
ing is  put  on,  there  are  dove-tailed  joints  between  the 
laths,  to  receive  the  cement,  preventing  its  loosening  until 
it  is  broken.  The  patent  grooved  lath  might  be  used, 
but  they  cannot  be  sprung  to  a  twenty-foot  circle.  Better 
than  either  kind  of  wooden  laths,  however,  is  wire  netting 
or  metal  lath  of  one  form  or  another,  such  as  is  now  gen- 
erally used  in  outside  plastering  of  houses,  nailed  on  strips 
of  Ix2's  which  are  placed  15  inches  apart,  and  nailed  onto 
the  studding  through  the  sheeting.  Metal  lath  will  not 
take  up  moisture  from  the  silage  juices,  and  thus  expand 
and  possibly  cause  the  plaster  to  crack,  as  would  be  likely 
to  occur  in  case  of  wooden  laths.  For  outside  sheeting 


t.+fflfc'   ,L  „.  ^_  Mfai^tM^ 

ii  .     N  i':°'uy 

MtmUKU 

A-/C*/. 

Jo,6-%*l-0- 


Fig.  10.     Foundation  plan  and  section  of  plastered  round 
wooden  silo. 


8U 


BRICK   LINED   SILOS.  81 

similar  material  as  that  used  for  inside  sheeting  may  be 
used.  If  built  inside  of  a  barn  or  in  a  sheltered  place,  no 
outside  sheeting  would  be  required,  although  it  would  add 
greatly  to  the  looks  of  the  silo.  Not  being  certain  that  the 
inside  sheeting,  laths  and  cement  offered  sufficient  resist- 
ance to  the  outward  pressure  in  the  silo,  Mr.  Gurler  put 
on  wooden  hoops  outside  of  the  studding,  of  the  same 
material  as  for  the  inside  sheeting,  putting  it  on  double 
thickness  and  breaking  joints.  The  silo  described,  which 
would  hold  250-300  tons,  .  cost  $300,  without  a  roof.  Mr. 
Gurler  considers  this  silo  the  best  that  can  be  built,  and 
estimates  that  it  will  last  for  at  least  fifty  years,  if  given 
a  wash  of  cement  every  three  years  and  if  any  cracks  that 
may  start  be  filled  before  the  silo  is  filled  again. 

Brick  Lined  Silos. 

As  an  illustration  of  silos  of  this  type  we  give  below 
a  description  of  the  silo  built  in  connection  with  the 
Dairy  Barn  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station;  the  ac- 
companying figures,  11  and  12,  will  show  the  exterior  ap- 
pearance of  the  barn  and  silo,  and  a  plan  of  the  eastern 
half  of  the  first  floor  of  this  barn. 

The  silo  is  circular  in  form,  18  feet  inside  diameter 
and  33  feet  deep.  It  is  a  framed  structure  lined  inside  and 
outside  with  brick.  On  2x6-inch  uprights,  two  wrappings 
of  %-inch  stuff,  6  inches  wide,  are  put,  breaking  joints, 
with  no  paper  between.  Brick  is  laid  tight  against  this 
lining,  and  on  the  brick  surface  is  a  heavy  coating  of 
Portland  cement  (1  part  cement,  1  part  sand).  On  the 
outside  brick  is  laid  up  against  the  lining  with  a  small 
open  space  between  (about  %  inch).  The  silo  is  filled 
from  the  third  floor  of  the  barn,  the  loads  of  corn  being 
hauled  directly  onto  this  floor  over  the  trestle  shown  to 
the  right  in  Fig.  11,  and  there  run  through  the  feed  cut- 
ter. When  the  silage  is  taken  out  for  feeding,  it  falls1 
through  a  box  chute  to  the  main  floor  where  it  is  received 
into  a  truck  (Fig.  30)  in  which  it  is  conveyed  to  the 
mangers  of  the  animals. 

6 


82 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 


ft, 


THE    STAVE    SILO.  83 

An  illustration  and  description  of  the  original  round 
silo,  with  a  capacity  of  90  tons,  built  at  the  same  Station 
in  1891  are  given  in  Prof.  Woll's  Book  on  Silage,  where 
descriptions  and  illustrations  of  a  number  of  other  first- 
class  round  wooden  silos  will  also  be  found,  like  those 
constructed  at  the  Experiment  Stations  in  New  Jersey, 
Missouri,  and  South  Dakota. 

Stave  Silos. 

The  stave  silo  is  the  simplest  type  of  separate  silo 
buildings,  and  partly  for  this  reason,  partly  on  account  of 
its  cheapness  of  construction,  more  silos  of  this  kind  have 
been  built  during  the  past  few  years  than  any  other  silo 
type. 

Since  their  first  introduction  Stave  Silos  have  been 
favorably  mentioned  by  most  writers  on  agricultural  topics, 
as  well  as  by  experiment  station  men.  In  the  recent  bulle- 
tin from  Cornell  Experiment  Station,  we  find  the  stave 
silo  spoken  of  as  "the  most  practical  and  successful  silo 
which  can  be  constructed,"  and  the  Ottawa  Experiment 
Station  is  on  record  for  the  following  statement  in  regard 
to  the  stave  silo:  "From  extensive  observation  and  study 
of  silos  and  silo  construction,  and  from  experience  here 
with  a  number  of  different  silos,  it  would  appear  that  the 
stave  silo  is  the  form  of  cheap  silos  that  for  various 
reasons  is  most  worthy  of  recommendation.  It  combines 
simplicity  and  cheapness  of  construction  with  the  requisite 
conditions  to  preserve  the  silage  in  the  very  best  condi- 
tions for  feeding." 

Stave  silos  are,  generally  speaking,  similar  to  large 
railroad  or  fermentation  tanks,  and  to  make  satisfactory 
silos  should  be  built  as  well  as  a  No.  1  water  tank.  The 
first  stave  silos  were  built  in  this  country  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  nineties;  they  soon  found  some  enthusiastic 
friends,  while  most  people,  including  nearly  all  writers 
and  lecturers  on  silo  construction,  were  inclined  to  be 
skeptical  as  to  their  practicability.  It  was  objected  that 


84  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 

the  staves  would  expand  so  as  to  burst  the  hoops  when, 
the  silo  was  filled  with  green  fodder;  that  they  would 
shrink  after  having  been  left  empty  during  the  summer 
months,  so  that  the  silo  would  fall  to  pieces,  or  at  least 
so  that  it  could  not  again  be  made  air-tight;  and  finally, 
that  the  silage  would  freeze  in  such  silos,  and  its  feeding 
value  thereby  greatly  lowered.  In  addition  to  this,  it  was 
claimed  that  a  substantial  stave  silo  would  cost  as  much 
as  a  first  class  ordinary  all-wood  silo  of  the  same  capacity, 
which  would  not  have  the  objectionable  features  of  the 
former. 

In  spite  of  these  objections  the  stave  silo  has,  how- 
ever, gradually  gained  ground,  until  of  late  years  it  has 
quite  generally  been  adopted  in  preference  to  other  kinds 
of  silos,  particularly  in  the  Eastern  and  Central  states. 
This  being  a  fact,  it  follows  that  the  objections  previously 
made  to  the  stave,  silos,  cannot  be  valid,  that  the  staves 
do  not  swell  so  as  to  burst  the  hoops,  or  shrink  so  as  to 
cause  the  silo  to  fall  to  pieces,  or  become  leaky.  As  re- 
gards the  danger  from  freezing  of  the  silage,  the  criticisms 
of  the  stave  silo  are  in  order,  as  silage  in  outdoor  stave 
silos  will  be  likely  to  freeze  in  cold  weather,  in  any  of 
the  Northern  states  or  Canada;  but,  according  to  the  testi- 
mony of  farmers  who  have  had  experience  with  frozen 
silage,  this  is  more  an  inconvenience  than  a  loss.  The 
freezing  does  not  injure  the  feeding  value  of  the  silage,  or 
its  palatability.  When  the  silage  is  thawed  out  it  is  as 
good  as  ever,  and  eaten  by  cattle  with  a  relish. 

Why  Stave  Silos  Have  Become  Numerous. 

The  main  reasons  why  stave  silos  have  been  preferred 
by  the  majority  of  farmers  during  late  years  are  that  they 
can  be  put  up  easily,  quickly  and  cheaply,  and  the  expense 
for  a  small  silo  of  this  kind  is  comparatively  small.  Many 
a  farmer  has  built  a  stave  silo  who  could  not  afford  to  build 
a  high-priced  silo,  and  others  have  preferred  to  build  two 
small  silos  for  one  large  one,  or  a  small  one  in  addition 
to  an  old,  larger  one  that  they  may  already  have.  Manu-. 


THE    STAVE    SILO.  85 

facturing  firms  have,  furthermore,  made  a  specialty  of 
stave-silo  construction,  and  pushed  the  sale  of  such  silos 
through  advertisements  and  neat  circulars.  Having  made 
a  special  business  of  the  building  of  stave  silos,  and  hav- 
ing had  several  years'  experience  as  to  the  requirements 
and  precautions  to  be  observed  in  building  such  silos,  these 
firms  furnish  silos  complete  with  all  necessary  fixtures, 
that  are  greatly  superior  to  any  which  a  farmer  would  be 
apt  to  build  according  to  more  or  less  incomplete  direc- 
tions. 

It  follows  that  the  stave  silos  sent  out  by  manufactur- 
ing firms  will  generally  be  more  expensive  than  such  a 
farmer  can  build  himself,  because  they  are  built  better. 
It  does  not  pay  to  build  a  poor  silo,  however,  except  to 
bridge  over  an  emergency.  Poor,  cheap  silos  are  a  con- 
stant source  of  annoyance,  expense  and  trouble,  whether 
built  square,  rectangular  or  round.  The  cheap  silos  de- 
scribed in  other  places  of  this  book  have  not  been  given 
for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  the  building  of  such  silos, 
but  rather  to  show  that  if  a  farmer  cannot  afford  to  build 
a  permanent  good  silo,  he  is  not  necessarily  barred  from 
the  advantages  of  having  silage  for  his  stock,  since  a  tem- 
porary silo  may  be  built  at  a  small  cash  outlay. 

We  can  therefore  consistently  recommend  that  parties 
intending  to  build  stave  silos  patronize  the  manufacturers 
who  have  made  silo  construction  a  special  business.  These 
firms  furnish  all  necessary  silo  fittings,  with  complete 
directions  for  putting  up  the  silos,  and,  if  desired,  also 
skilled  help  to  superintend  their  building.  Perhaps  a 
large  majority  of  the  farmers  of  the  country  cannot,  how- 
ever, patronize  manufacturers  of  stave  silos  because  the 
expense  of  shipping  the  lumber  and  fixtures  would  be  pro- 
hibitory. For  the  convenience  of  such  parties  and  others 
who  may  prefer  to  build  their  own  stave  silos,  directions 
for  their  construction  are  given  in  the  following:  The 
specifications  for  a  100-ton  stave  silo,  printed  below,  which: 
are  taken  from  Woll's  Book  on  Silage,  were  furnished  by 
Claude  &  Starck,  Architects,  Madison,  Wisconsin. 


86  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 

Specifications  for  100-ton  Silo. 

MASONRY. 

Excavate  the  entire  area  to  be  occupied  by  the  silo  to 
a  depth  of  six  inches;  excavate  for  foundation  wall  to  a 
depth  of  16  inches;  in  this  trench  build  a  wall  18  inches 
wide  and  20  inches  high,  of  field  stone  laid  in  rich  lime 
mortar.  Level  off  top  and  plaster  inside,  outside  and  on 
top  with  cement  mortar,  1  part  cement  to  1  part  sand. 
Fill  inside  area  with  four  inches  of  good  gravel,  thoroughly 
tamped  down;  after  the  wood  work  is  in  place  coat  this 
with  one  inch  of  cement  mortar,  1  part  cement  to  1  part 
clean  sand.  Cement  shall  be  smoothly  finished,  dished 
well  to  the  center  and  brought  up  at  least  2  inches  all 
around  inside  and  outside  walls. 

CARPENTRY. 

All  staves  shall  be  26  feet  long  in  two  pieces,  breaking 
joints,  and  made  from  clear,  straight-grained  cypress,  2x6 
inches,  beveled  on  edges  to  an  outside  radius  of  8  feet, 
mill-sized  to  the  exact  dimensions  and  dressed  on  all  sides. 
There  shall  be  three  doors  in  the  fifth,  eighth  and  tenth 
spaces  between  the  hoops,  made  by  cutting  out  from  staves 
28  inches  long  cut  to  a  45-degree  bevel  sloping  to  the 
inside.  (See  Fig.  13.)  The  staves  shall  then  be  fastened 
together  with  two  2x4-inch  battens  cut  on  inside  to  an 
8-ft.  radius  and  bolted  to  each  stave  with  two  ^-inch 
diameter  carriage  bolts  with  round  head  sunk  on  inside 
and  nut  on  outside.  The  staves  between  the  doors  shall 
be  fastened  together,  top  and  bottom,  with  ^-inch  diam- 
eter hardwood  dowel  pins,  and  abutting  ends  of  staves 
shall  be  squared  and  toe-nailed  together. 

Bottom  Plates. — Bottom  plates  shall  be  made  of  2x4- 
inch  pieces  about  2  feet  long,  cut  to  a  curve  of  7  feet  10 
inches  radius  outside.  They  shall  be  bedded  in  cement 
mortar  and  the  staves  shall  then  be  set  on  the  foundation 
and  well  spiked  to  these  plates. 


DOOR  OF  STAVE  SILO. 


87 


Hoops. — Hoops  shall  be  made  from  two  pieces  of 
%-inch  diameter  round  iron  with  upset  ends,  threaded 
8  inches,  with  nut  and  washer  at  each  end;  as  a  support 
for  the  hoops  a  piece  of  4x6  shall  be  substituted  for 
a  stave  on  opposite  sides  and  holes  bored  in  it  and  the 
ends  of  hoops  passed  through  these  holes  and  tightened 
against  the  sides  of  the  4x6-inch.  The  hoops  shall  be 
twelve  in  number  starting  at  the  bottom  6  inches  apart 
and  increasing  in  distance  6  inches  between  each  hoop 


C 


Fig.  13.  Appearance  of  door  in  stave  silo  after  being  sawed 
out,  and  side  viezv  in  place.  The  opening  is  largest  on 
the  inside  of  silo.  (Clinton.} 


88 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 


until  a  space  of  3  feet  6  inches  is  reached;  from  this  point 
up  this  distance  shall  be  preserved  as  near  as  possible  to 
the  top.  \ 

Roof. — Roof  shall  be  made  to  a  half-pitch  of  6-inch 
clear  siding  lapping  joints,  nailed  to  2x4-inch  rafters,  2-feet 
centers  1-foot  by  4-inch  ridge,  and  2x4-inch  plates.  These 
plates  to  be  supported  on  two  4x4-inch  pieces  resting  on 
top  of  hoops.  Three  Ix4-inch  collar  beams  shall  be  spiked 


Fig'.  14.    A  cheap  roof  of  a  stave  silo.     (Clinton.} 

to  end  and  middle  rafters  to  tie  side  of  roof  together.  See 
Fig.  11.)  Fig.  14  shows  another  simple  construction  of 
roof  on  a  stave  silo. 

PAINTING. 

The  entire  outside  of  the  silo,  including  roof,  shall  be 
painted  two  coats  of  good  mineral  paint;  the  entire  inside 
surface  of  the  staves  and  doors  shall  be  thoroughly  coated 
with  hot  coal  tar. 


MATERIAL  FOR  THE  SILO.  89 

Note. — Before  filling  silo,  tar  paper  should  be  tacked 
tightly  over  doors  and  the  entire  inside  of  silo  examined 
and  cracks  tightly  caulked. 

The  method  of  construction  specified  in  the  preceding 
may  of  course  be  modified  in  many  particulars,  according 
to  the  conditions  present  in  each  case,  cost  of  different 
kinds  of  lumber,  maximum  amount  of  money  to  be  ex- 
pended on  silo,  etc. 

The  following  directions  for  the  construction  of  stave 
silos  are  taken  from  two  bulletins  on  this  subject,  published 
by  the  Cornell  and  Ottawa  Experiment  Stations.  For  a 
silo  20  feet  in  diameter,  a  circular  trench  18  inches  to  two 
feet  wide  and  with  an  outer  diameter  of  22  feet  is  dug 
about  2  feet  deep,  or  below  the  frost  line.  The  surface 
soil  over  the  whole  included  area,  and  for  2  feet  outside,  is 
removed  to  a  depth  of  10  or  12  inches  at  the  same  time. 
The  trench  is  then  filled  to  the  level  of  the  interior  with 
stone,  well  pounded  down,  the  surface  stone  being  broken 
quite  small,  and  thin  cement  (1  part  of  cement  to  4  of  sand 
thoroughly  mixed)  poured  over,  well  worked  in  and  left 
for  a  few  days.  This  is  followed  by  a  coat  of  good  cement 
(1  part  cement  to  3  sand),  care  being  taken  when  finished 
to  have  the  surface  level  and  smooth. 

The  silo  is  set  up  as  shown  in  Fig.  15,  which  shows 
a  cross-section  of  one  method  of  construction. 

The  posts  (a,  a,  a,  a)  should  be  of  6x6  material  and 
rim  the  entire  length  of  the  silo.  These  should  be  first 
set  up  vertically  and  stayed  securely  in  place. 

The  scaffolding  may  be  constructed  by  setting  up  2  by 
4  scantling  in  the  positions  shown  in  Fig.  15,  as  b,  b,  b,  b. 
Boards  nailed  from  these  2  by  4  scantling  and  to  the 
6  by  6  posts  will  form  a  rigid  framework,  across  which 
the  planks  for  the  scaffold  platform  may  be  laid.  Be- 
fore the  scaffolding  is  all  in  place  the  staves  should  be 
stood  up  within  the  inclosure;  otherwise  difficulty  will  be 
experienced  in  getting  them  into  position. 

It  is  probable  that  no  better  material  can  be  obtained 
for  the  staves  than  Southern  cypress.  This,  however,  is 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 


1.-J. 


Fig.  15.      Cross   section    of   stave   sih.      The    dolled    lines 
slicw  how  scaffolding   may  be  put  up. 

so  expensive  in  the  North,  as  to  preclude  its  use  in  most 
cases.  Of  the  cheaper  materials  hemlock,  white  pine,  and 
yellow  pine,  are  usually  the  most  available.  At  the  pres- 
ent time  hemlock  is  one  of  the  cheapest  satisfactory 
materials  which  can  be  purchased,  and  it  is  probably  as 
good  as  any  of  the  cheaper  materials.  It  should  be  sound 
and  free  from  loose  knots. 

If  the  silo  is  to  have  a  diameter  of  12  feet  or  less,  the 
staves  should  be  made  of  either  2  by  4  material,  unbeveled 
on  the  edges  and  neither  tongued  nor  grooved,  or  of 
2  by  6  material  beveled  slightly  on  the  edges  to  make  the 
staves  conform  to  the  circular  shape  of  the  silo.  If  the 


STAVES   FOR   SETTING  UP   SILO.  91 

silo  is  to  have  a  diameter  of  more  than  12  feet,  the  staves 
should  be  of  2  by  6  material,  and  neither  beveled  nor 
tongued  and  grooved  on  the  edges.  The  staves  should  be 
surfaced  on  the  inside  so  that  a  smooth  face  may  be  pre- 
sented which  will  facilitate  the  settling  of  the  silage.  The 
first  stave  set  up  should  be  made  plumb,  and  should  be 
toe-nailed  at  the  top  to  one  of  the  posts  originally  set. 


Fig.  16.     Shows  how  barrel  staves  may  be  used  in  setting 
up  a  silo.   They  should  be  removed  before  the  silo  is  filled. 

Immediately  a  stave  is  set  in  place  it  should  be  toe-nailed 
at  the  top  to  the  preceding  stave  set.  It  has  been  found 
that  the  work  of  setting  up  and  preserving  the  circular 
outline  may  be  materially  aided  by  the  use  of  old  barrel 
staves  (see  Fig.  16.)  For  a  silo  12  feet  in  diameter  the 
curve  in  the  stave  of  the  sugar  barrel  is  best  adapted; 
for  a  16-foot  silo  the  flour  barrel  stave  is  best,  and  for  a 
silo  20  feet  or  more  in  diameter  the  stave  of  the  cement 


92  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 

barrel  is  best.  If  when  the  silo  staves  are  put  in  place 
they  are  toe-nailed  securely  to  the  ones  previously  set; 
if  they  are  fastened  firmly  to  the  permanent  upright  posts 
(Fig.  15,  a,  a,  a,  a) ;  if  the  barrel  staves  are  used  as 
directed  above,  the  silo  will  have  sufficient  rigidity  to  stand 
until  the  hoops  are  put  in  place.  However,  if  it  becomes 
necessary  for  any  reason  to  delay  for  any  considerable 
time  the  putting  on  of  the  hoops,  boards  should  be  nailed 
across  the  top  of  the  silo. 

When  it  is  found  impossible  to  secure  staves  of  the 
full  length  desired,  a  joint  or  splice  must  be  made. 

For  a  silo  30  feet  deep,  staves  20  feet  in  length  may  be 
used.  A  part  of  these  should  be  used  their  full  length  and 
part  should  be  sawed  through  the  middle,  thus  making 
staves  of  20  and  10  feet  length.  In  setting  them  up  the 
ends  which  meet  at  the  splice  should  be  squared  and  toe- 
nailed  securely  together.  They  should  alternate  so  that 
first  a  long  stave  is  at  the  bottom  then  a  short  one,  thus 
breaking  joints  at  10  feet  and  20  feet  from  the  base. 

For  the  hoops,  %-inch  round  iron  or  steel  rods  are 
recommended,  although  cheaper  substitutes  have  been 
found  satisfactory.  Each  hoop  should  be  in  three  sections 
for  a  silo  12  feet  in  diameter,  in  four  sections  for  a  silo 
16  feet  in  diameter.  If  the  method  of  construction  shown 
in  Fig.  15  is  followed,  the  hoops  will  need  to  be  in  four 
sections  each,  the  ends  being  passed  through  the  upright 
6x6  posts,  and  secured  by  heavy  washers  and  nuts.  The 
bottom  hoop  should  be  about  six  inches  from  the  base  of 
the  silo;  the  second  hoop  should  be  not  more  than  two 
feet  from  the  first;  the  third  hoop  two  and  one-half  feet 
from  the  second,  the  distance  between  hoops  being  in- 
creased by  one-half  foot  until  they  are  three  and  one-half 
feet  apart,  which  distance  should  be  maintained  except  for 
the  hoops  at  the  top  of  the  silo  which  may  be  four  feet 
apart.  The  hoops,  should  be  drawn  fairly  tight  before  the 
silo  is  filled,  but  not  perfectly  tight.  They  must  be  tight 
enough  to  close  up  the  space  between  the  staves,  thus 
preventing  any  foreign  matter  from  getting  into  the  cracks 


IRON  HOOPS   FOR   SILOS.  93 

which  would  prevent  the  staves  from  closing  up  as  they 
swell,  and  allow  air  to  enter.  To  hold  hoops  and  staves 
in  place  during  the  summer  when  the  silo  is  empty,  staples 
should  be  driven  over  the  hoops  into  the  staves.  If  a  suf- 
ficient number  of  staples  are  used  they  will  prevent  the 
sagging  or  dropping  down  of  the  hoops,  and  they  will 
hold  the  staves  securely  in  place. 

The  hoops  should  be  watched  very  closely  for  a  few 
days  after  the  silo  is  filled.  If  the  strain  becomes  quite 
intense  the  nuts  should  be  slightly  loosened.  If  during 
the  summer  when  the  silo  is  empty  and  the  staves  thor- 
oughly dry  the  hoops  are  tightened  so  that  the  staves 
are  drawn  closely  together  when  the  silo  is  filled  and  the 
wood  absorbs  moisture  and  begins  to  swell,  the  hoops 
must  be  eased  somewhat  to  allow  for  the  expansion. 

The  doors,  2  feet  wide  by  2^  feet  high,  should  be 
located  where  convenience  in  feeding  dictates.  The  lower 
door  should  be  between  the  second  and  third  hoops  at 
the  bottom,  and  other  doors  will  usually  be  needed  in  every 
second  space  between  there  and  the  top,  except  that  no 
door  will  be  needed  in  the  top  space,  as  the  silage  when 
settled  will  be  sufficiently  low  to  enable  it  to  be  taken  out 
at  the  door  in  the  space  below.  Plans  should  be  made 
for  the  doors  at  the  time  the  staves  are  set.  When  the 
place  is  reached  where  it  is  desired  to  have  the  doors,  a 
saw  should  be  started  in  the  edge  of  the  stave  at  the.  points 
where  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  doors  are  to  come.  The 
saw  should  be  inserted  so  that  the  door  can  be  sawed  out 
on  a  bevel,  making  the  opening  larger  on  the  inside  of  the 
silo.  (See  Fig.  13).  This  will  enable  the  door  to  be  re- 
moved and  put  in  place  only  from  the  inside,  and  when  set 
in  place  and  pressed  down  with  silage  the  harder  the  pres- 
sure the  tighter  will  the  door  fit.  After  the  silo  is  set  up 
and  the  hoops  have  been  put  on  and  tightened  the  cutting 
out  of  the  doors  may  be  completed.  Before  doing  this, 
cleats  2  inches  by  3  inches  and  in  length  equal  to  the 
width  of  the  door,  should  be  made  which  will  conform  to 
the  circular  shape  of  the  silo.  One  of  these  cleats  should 


94  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 

be  securely  bolted  to  the  top  and  one  to  the  bottom  of 
where  the  door  is  to  be  cut.  (See  Fig.  13.)  After  the 
bolting,  the  door  may  be  sawed  out,  and  it  is  then  ready 
for  use.  When  set  in  place  at  time  of  filling  the  silo  a 
piece  of  tarred  paper  inserted  at  the  top  and  bottom  will 
fill  the  opening  made  by  the  saw  and  prevent  the  entrance 
of  any  air  around  the  door. 

Another  Door  for  Stave  Silo. 

Silage  being  heavy  to  handle,  and  pitch  up,  has  made 
continuous  doors  a  popular  feature  of  a  few  factory-built 
silos,  as  it  is  much  easier  to  get  the  silage  out  of  the  silo 
for  feeding.  The  illustration,  Fig.  17,  shows  a  method  of 
making  a  door  in  homemade  silos  which  is  continuous  with 
the  exception  of  a  narrow  brace  piece  extending  across 
the  opening,  under  each  hoop,  to  give  rigidity  to  the  struc- 
ture. These  pieces  should  be  securely  toe-nailed  at  each 
end  to  the  staves.  The  jamb  pieces,  e,  e,  should  be  2 
inches  thick,  beveled  off  on  the  side  away  from  the  door, 
securely  spiked  to  the  inside  of  the  stave,  as  shown,  so  as 
to  leave  a  rabbet  2x2  inches.  Great  care  should  be  taken 
to  have  these  pieces  exactly  the  same  distance  apart 
throughout  their  entire  length,  so  that  the  door  boards, 
being  sawed  the  exact  length,  will  fit  alike  and  properly 
all  the  way  up,  and  if  care  be  taken  in  this  regard  it  will 
not  be  necessary  to  replace  them  in  the  same  order  at 
each  successive  filling  of  the  silo.  The  door  boards  should 
be  matched,  two  inches  thick  the  same  as  the  staves,  and 
if  surfaced  and  well  seasoned  there  need  be  no  fear  of  the 
silage  spoiling  around  such  a  door.  A  strip  of  acid  and 
water-proof  paper  may  be  placed  in  the  rabbet,  between 
the  ends  of  the  door  boards  and  the  stave,  as  an  extra 
precaution,  but  if  the  carpenter  work  is  well  done  it  is  not 
absolutely  necessary. 

Such  a  door  can  be  adapted  to  any  form  of  stave  silo, 
and,  if  not  more  than  two  feet  wide,  the  fact  that  the  door 
section  is  straight  instead  of  curved  will  make  no  differ- 
ence. 


SECTION  OP  SILO  DOOR. 


95 


Fig.  17.    a>  a>  Staves,    b,  b,  Door  Boards,     c,  Brace  2l/t 
by  6,  set  in.    d,  d,  Hoops,    e,  e,  Jamb  Pieces. 


96 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 


If  the  silo  is  built  outside  of  the  barn  some  sort  of  a 
roof  is  desirable.  This  should  be  sufficiently  wide  to  pro- 
tect the  walls  of  the  silo  as  thoroughly  as  possible.  A 
very  satisfactory  roof  is  shown  in  Fig.  14.  Two  other  con- 
structions of  a  cheap  roof  for  a  stave  silo  are  shown  in 
Figs.  18  and  19.  The  latter  was  built  at  the  Indiana  Ex- 
periment Station  at  a  total  cost  of  $10.50,  viz.,  lumber 
$4.00,  tin  put  on  and  painted  $6.00  and  hardware  50  cents. 
Two  2x6  pieces  (AA)  were  placed  on  edge  and  toe-nailed 
to  the  top  of  the  staves  they  rested  on;  the  projection  is 
for  supporting  the  carrier  at  filling  time.  They  are  tied 
together  by  the  short  pieces  E.  The  roof  is  in  three 
sections,  G,  H,  and  I.  G  and  H  are  hinged  to  the  frame 
A,  A,  and  may  be  tipped  up  when  the  silo  is  nearly  full, 


Fig.  18.    A   cheap  roof  for  stave  silos. 


CHECK  ROOF  FOR  STAVE  SILO. 


97 


to  allow  filling  to  the  top.  The  narrow  middle  section  is 
light  enough  to  lift  off  on  either  side,  and  leaves  the  open- 
ing for  the  carrier  to  deliver  into. 

On   the   framework   B,    B,    and    C,    C,    cheap    sheeting 
boards  are  nailed.     This  is  then  covered  with  tin,  soldered 


Fig.19.     A   CHEAP  ROOF  OF  STAVE  SILO. 

A,  B,  and  E,  2x6  in.;  C,  2x4  in.;  D,  E,  Enlarged  Outside 
End;  F,  Hinges;  G,  H,  1,  Sections  of  Roof;  J,  K,  2x2 
in.  {Van  Norman.) 

joints  and  painted.  The  sections  should  be  fastened  down 
by  means  of  staples  and  hooks,  or  other  device;  the  hooks 
are  used  on  this  one.  On  the  inner  edge  of  G  and  H, 
2x2-inch  strips,  K,  are  nailed.  Close  to  these  are  placed 
similar  strips,  J,  to  which  the  cross-boards  are  nailed, 
7 


98  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 

forming  the  section  I  of  the  roof.  The  tin  on  the  section 
I  should  come  over  to  the  side  of  J.  On  the  other  sec- 
tions it  should  run  up  on  the  side  of  K,  making  a  water 
tight  joint. 

The  sections  G  and  H  have  slope  of  nearly  3  inches, 
being  the  difference  in  height  of  A  and  C.  C  is  notched 
one  inch  at  the  outer  end.  (Van  Norman.) 

Cheap  Stave  Silos. 

A  foundation,  bottom,  and  roofless  stave  silo  was  de- 
scribed recently  in  Hoard's  Dairyman,  which  may  prove 
of  interest  and  value  to  some  readers.  It  was  put  up  on 
a  leased  farm,  with  the  expectation  of  removing  it  on  the 
termination  of  the  lease.  It  has  the  sky  for  a  roof,  the 
ground  for  a  bottom,  and  no  foundation  but  a  2x6  spruce 
scantling  to  secure  a  level  base  for  the  wall,  while  pro- 
tecting them  from  rotting  on  the  ground.  The  silo  has 
a  diameter  of  24  feet,  and  is  as  high  as  could  be  built  from 
2x4  scantling  without  splicing  them.  The  2x4  spruce 
scantlings  were  set  18  inches  apart  from  center  to  center, 
upon  a  2x6  sill,  directly  upon  the  ground.  It  was  sheeted 
on  the  inside  with  two  thicknesses  of  %x6  spruce,  with 
tar  paper  between.  On  the  outside,  at  the  bottom,  half 
way  up,  and  at  the  top,  were  two,  three,  and  two  bands  of 
1x6  common  fencing,  respectively,  and  no  other  boarding. 
The  silo  has  a  capacity  of  250  tons,  and  was  built  at  a 
cost  of  $174.21.  "We  never  had  better  silage  than  we  are 
now  feeding  out  of  this  silo,  though  we  did  have  to  shovel 
nearly  a  foot  off  of  it  a  few  days  ago,  when  the  silo  was 
opened." 

A  Modification  of  the  Stave  Silo. 

Stave  silos  are  admittedly  cheap  and  readily  put  up, 
but  unless  hoops  are  tightened  as  they  dry  out,  they  may 
be  easily  blown  into  a  shapeless  mass  in  case  of  a  heavy 
gale.  The  modification  of  the  stave  silo  described  in  the 
following  has  the  advantage  of  being  more  rigid  and  sub- 


MODIFICATION    OF    STAVE    SilX).  99 

stantial;  it  has  been  put  up  in  a  number  of  places  in  the 
east,  and  has  apparently  given  good  satisfaction  for  sev- 
eral years  at  least.  In  building  this  silo  some  good,  tough 
oak  plank  two  inches  thick  and  of  any  convenient  length 
are  procured.  Rock  elm  will  do,  although  not  as  good  as 
oak.  The  planks  are  sawed  into  strips  half  an  inch  thick. 
The  foundation  of  the  silo  is  made  of  concrete,  and  a  little 
larger  than  the  outside  diameter  of  the  silo.  A  stake 
Is  set  in  the  center  and  on  this  a  piece  is  nailed,  just  long 
enough  to  act  as  a  guide  in  setting  scantling  when  erecting 
sides.  For  sides  I%x4-inph  hemlock  of  any  desired  length 
is  used.  These  are  set  up  on  the  circumference  of  the 
silo,  perpendicular  to  the  bottom,  3  feet  and  7  feet  up  nail 
on  the  outside  one  of  the  half-inch  strips  mentioned  be- 
fore, being  sure  to  keep  the  circle  regular.  This  will  keep 
upright  pieces  in  place  until  the  circle  is  completed.  On 
each  hoop  so  started  other  half-inch  pieces  are  nailed, 
lapping  them  in  different  places  until  each  hoop  is  three 
Inches  thick.  Other  hoops  are  now  put  on  in  the  same 
manner,  placing  them  one  foot  apart  at  bottom,  up  to  the 
three-foot  hoop  16  inches  apart  from  three  to  the  7-foot 
hoop,  then  increasing  the  distance  between  each  hoop  two 
inches,  until  they  are  30  inches  apart,  at  which  distance 
they  should  be  kept.  If  staves  are  to  be  spliced  it  should 
be  done  on  the  hoop.  When  this  is  done,  a  silo  will  be 
made  of  I1/&x4  inch,  thoroughly  hooped  with  wooden  hoops 
2x3  inches. 

The  inside  may  be  covered  with  the  best  quality  of 
felt,  well  tacked  to  the  staves,  on  which  a  thick  coat  of 
thick  coal  tar  is  spread;  over  this  another  thickness  of 
felt  is  put  while  the  tar  coating  is  still  green.  The  silo  is 
lined  with  f^-inch  Georgia  pine  ceiling,  nailing  thoroughly, 
and  the  lining  coated  with  two  coats  of  coal  tar,  putting 
on  the  first  one  quite  thin,  but  using  all  the  wood  will  take 
in,  and  for  a  second  coat  tar  as  thick  as  can  be  spread. 
Give  plenty  of  time  to  dry  before  filling. 

The  outside  of  the  silo  may  be  boarded  up  with  ver- 
tical boarding,  or  it  may  have  strips  nailed  on  hoops  and 


100  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 

be  boarded  with  novelty  siding.  The  latter  method  will 
make  a  stronger  and  better  looking  silo.  If  the  hoops  are 
well  nailed  to  the  staves  when  being  made,  we  shall  have 
a  silo  in  which  it  is  impossible  for  the  staves  to  shrink 
or  get  loose.  (Woodward.) 

Peer,  in  his  book  "Soiling,  Soiling  Crops  and  Ensilage," 
reports  that  a  New  York  canning  factory  who  has  for 
years  siloed  their  pea  vines,  corn  husks  and  cobs,  and  win- 
tered sheep  thereon,  put  the  refuse  through  a  cutting  box 
Into  a  rough  plank  silo  about  thirty  feet  in  diameter.  "The 
planks  were  rough,  just  as  they  came  from  the  saw  mill, 
set  on  end,  and  hooped  with  half-inch  iron.  No  roof  was 
put  on,  and  when  the  silage  settled  the  staves  were  taken 
down,  the  silage  stood,  and  the  whole  mass  kept  in  per- 
fect form.  The  following  year  the  staves  (2x6  inch 
planks)  are  set  up  again.  As  to  the  silage  spoiling,  there 
Is  six  or  eight  inches  on  the  side  that  rots,  and  is  thrown 
into  the  manure  heap.  As  to  freezing,  they  experienced 
no  inconvenience  from  that.  If  the  top  freezes  a  little, 
it  is  mixed  with  the  unfrozen,  fermentation  sets  up,  and 
the  frozen  part  is  thawed  out  by  its  own  combustion. 

Protection  against  freezing.  If  the  silo  is  built  out- 
doors in  any  of  the  Northern  states,  it  is  necessary  to  pro- 
vide some  special  means  to  keep  the  silage  from  freezing 
in  case  this  is  considered  a  very  objectionable  feature. 
The  silo  may  be  inclosed  by  a  wide  jacket  of  rough  boards 
nailed  to  four  uprights,  leaving  the  section  of  the  silo 
where  the  doors  are  easy  of  access;  the  space  between  the 
silo  and  outside  jacket  is  filled  with  straw  in  the  fall;  this 
may  be  taken  out  and  used  for  bedding  in  the  spring,  thus 
allowing  the  staves  to  be  thoroughly  dried  out  during  the 
summer,  and  preventing  the  silo  from  rotting. 

Number  of  staves  required  for  stave  silos. — The  follow- 
ing table  will  be  found  useful  in  calculating  the  number  of 
staves  required  for  silos  of  different  diameters,  and  feed- 
ing areas  which  these  will  give: 


TABLE  OF  AREAS  AND  CIRCUMFERENCES.      101 


CIRCUMFERENCES   AND   AREAS  OF    CIRCLES. 


Diameter, 
Feet. 

Circum- 
ference, 
Feet. 

Area, 
Square 
Feet. 

Diameter, 
Feet. 

Circum- 
ference, 
Feet. 

Area, 
Square 
Feet. 

8 

25.1 

50.3 

21 

66.0 

346.4 

9 

28.3 

63.6 

22 

69.1 

380.1 

10 

31.4 

78.5 

23 

72.3 

415.5 

11 

34.6 

95.0 

24 

75.4 

452.4 

12 

37.7 

113.1 

25 

78.5 

490.9 

13 

40.8 

132.7 

26 

81.7 

530.9 

14 

44.0 

153.9 

27 

84.8 

572.6 

15 

47.1 

179.7 

28 

88.0 

615.8 

16 

50.3 

201.1 

29 

91.1 

660.5 

17 

53.4 

227.0 

30 

94.2 

706.9 

18 

56.5 

254.5 

31 

97.4 

754.8 

19 

59.7 

283.5 

32 

100.5 

804.2 

20 

62.8 

314.2 

To  find  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  multiply  the 
diameter  by  3.1416. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  circle,  multiply  the  square  of  the 
diameter  by  0.7854. 

To  find  the  cubical  contents  of  a  cylinder,  multiply  the 
area  of  the  base  (floor)  by  the  height. 

Example. — A  silo  16  feet  in  diameter  and  26  feet  high 
is  wanted;  how  many  staves  2x6  inches  will  be  needed, 
and  what  will  be  the  feeding  area  in  the  silo  and  its 
capacity  ? 

The  circumference  of  a  circle  16  feet  diameter  is  50.3 
feet;  there  will  therefore  be  required  '50.3-M^— 101  staves, 
2x6  inches,  26  feet  high,  or  if  staves  of  this  height  cannot 
be  obtained,  135  staves  20  feet  long,  or  50  each  of  12  and 
14  feet  long  staves.  The  feeding  area  will  be  16\16X 
0.7854—201.1  square  feet,  and  the  cubical  content  of  the 
silo,  201.1x26=5228.6  cubic  feet.  Estimating  the  weight 
of  a  cubic  foot  of  corn  silage  at  40  pounds,  5228.6  cubic 
feet  of  silage  would  weigh  209,164  pounds,  or  about  100 
tons,  which  is  the  approximate  capacity  of  a  round  silo 
of  the  dimensions  givei*. 


102  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 

Connecting  Round  Silos  with  Barn. — The  location  of 
the  silo  with  reference  to  other  farm  buildings  has  already 
been  discussed.  The  silo  must  be  easy  to  get  at  from  the 
stable,  and  the  silage,  if  possible,  handled  only  once  in 
being  placed  before  the  stock.  A  round  silo  is  most  con- 
veniently built  just  outside  of  the  barn  and  connected  with 
this  by  means  of  covered  passage  way.  The  method  of 
joining  silos  to  barns  is  illustrated  in  numerous  pictures 
of  silos  given  in  this  book.  (See  Fig.  20.) 

Other  Forms  of  Round  Silos. 

The  various  types  of  round,  wooden  silos  have  been 
described  at  some  length  in  the  preceding,  because  per- 
haps ninety  per  cent,  of  farmers  who  expect  to  build  a 
silo  will  build  one  of  this  kind,  either  one  of  the  more 
substantial  and  expensive  original  or  modified  Wisconsin 
silos,  or  a  stave  silo.  In  some  cases  it  seems  more  de- 
sirable to  build  a  round  silo  of  other  material  than  wood, 
viz.,  of  either  stone  or  brick.  The  general  principles  that 
must  be  observed  in  constructing  silos  of  these  materials 
are  similar  to  those  underlying  the  proper  construction  of 
wooden  silos.  In  order  to  strengthen  the  wall  of  the  silo, 
it  is  recommended  to  bed  in  the  wall  between  the  doors  % 
inch  iron  rods,  bent  to  the  curve  of  the  silo  circle,  and 
about  12  feet  long.  The  two  ends  should  be  turned  short 
at  right  angles,  so  as  to  anchor  better  in  the  mortar.  In 
deep  stone  silos,  which  rise  more  than  18  feet  above  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  it  will  be  safest  to  strengthen  the 
wall  between  the  two  lower  doors  with  iron  tie  rods,  and, 
if  such  a  silo  is  built  of  boulders,  it  will  be  well  to  use 
rods  enough  to  have  a  complete  line  or  hoop  around  the 
silo  about  two  feet  above  the  ground,  as  represented  in 
Pig.  21. 

Too  great  care  cannot  be  taken  in  making  the  part  of 
the  wall  below  and  near  the  ground  solid,  and  especially 
Its  outer  face,  so  that  it  will  be  strong  where  the  greatest 
strain  will  come.  It  is  best  also  to  dig  the  pit  for  the  silo 
large  enough  so  as  to  have  plenty  of  room  outside  of  the 


ILLUSTRATION. 


103 


104  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO.  ^ 

finished  wall  to  permit  the  earth  filled  in  behind  to  be 
very  thoroughly  tamped,  so  as  to  act  as  a  strong  backing 
for  the  wall.  This  is  urged  because  a  large  per  cent,  of 
the  stone  foundations  of  wood  silos  have  cracked  more  or 
less  from  one  cause  or  another,  and  these  cracks  lead  to 
the  spoiling  of  silage. 


Fig.  21.     Shozving  method  of  bedding  iron  rods  in   sloiu'. 
brick,  or  concrete  walls,  to  increase  the  strength. 

Flat  quarry  rock,  like  limestone,  will  make  the  strong- 
est silo  wall,  because  they  bond  much  better  than  boulders 
do,  and  when  built  of  limestone  they  will  not  need  to  be 
reinforced  much  with  iron  rods.  It  will  be  best  even  in 
this  case,  however,  to  use  the  iron  tie  rods  between  the 
lower  two  doors.  (King.) 


BRICK   SILOS.  105 

Brick  Silos. — In  constructing  a  brick  silo  it  will  be  well 
to  guard  the  following  points;  Make  the  foundation  of 
stone  if  practicable,  and  let  the  first  course  of  brick  come 
flush  on  the  inside  with  the  stone  work.  Bed  a  five-eighths 
inch  iron  hoop  in  the  stone  work  in  the  upper  part  before 
laying  the  brick,  in  order  to  keep  the  pressure  of  brick 
from  spreading  the  wall  before  the  mortar  becomes  set  and 
hard.  Make  a  two-inch  air  space  in  the  walls  up  to  within 
one-third  of  the  top.  This  will  make  a  14-inch  wall  of 
three  courses  of  brick.  If,  however,  the  silo  is  to  be  over 
24  feet  inside  diameter,  then  a  four-brick  wall  is  really  nec- 
essary one-third  the  way  up,  then  the  next  third  of  three 
bricks  and  the  last  third  of  two  bricks.  The  air  space 
should  be  in  the  outer  part  of  the  wall.  Iron  tie  rods 
should  also  be  laid  around  in  the  wall  between  the  doors, 
as  recommended  in  the  stone  work.  It  is  also  important 
that  the  brick  should  be  wet  when  laid,  otherwise  the 
mortar  in  which  they  are  laid  will  be  dried  out  too  rapidly. 
The  walls  should  be  plastered  over  very  smoothly  with  a 
coat  of  rich  cement,  one-fourth  to  one-half  inch  thick, 
and  then  every  two  or  three  years  this  should  be  well 
white-washed  with  thin  cement,  to  keep  the  wall  protected 
from  the  effects  of  acid  in  the  silage.  King  recommends 
that  the  floor  jambs  be  made  of  3x6's  or  3x8's,  rabbetted 
two  inches  deep  to  receive  the  door  on  the  inside.  The 
center  of  the  jambs  outside  should  be  grooved  and  a 
tongue  inserted  projecting  three-fourths  of  an  inch  out- 
ward to  set  back  into  the  mortar,  and  thus  secure  a 
thoroughly  air-tight  joint  between  wall  and  jamb.  The 
doors  may  be  made  of  two  layers  of  matched  flooring  with 
tarred  paper  between,  and  lag  screw  bolted  to  the  jamb, 
B®  as  to  give  a  perfect  smooth  face  next  to  the  silage. 

Stone  Silos. — The  stone  should  have  a  wall  about  two 
feet  thick  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  this  may 
be  laid  in  the  cheaper  grades  of  cement.  Above  the  sur- 
face a  good  grade  of  Portland  cement  should  be  used.  A 
thickness  of  wall  of  18  inches  at  the  surface  of  the 
ground  is  desirable,  but  this  may  be  gradually  reduced 


106  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 

to  12  inches  at  the  top,  keeping  the  inner  surface  of  the 
silo  perpendicular.  It  is  important  to  have  five-eighths  inch 
iron  rods,  with  angles  on  the  ends,  laid  in  the  wall  at 
intervals  between  each  door,  to  keep  the  walls  from  crack- 
ing or  spreading  before  the  mortar  or  cement  is  thoroughly 
Bet.  These  rods  may  be  of  several  lengths,  laid  to  the 
curve  of  the  wall,  and  the  angled  ends  should  lap  by  each 
other  for  three  or  four  inches. 

It  will  be  well  to  place  silos  a  distance  below  the  sur- 
face. This  should  not  be  deep  enough  on  level  land,  how- 
ever, to  require  great  exertion  to  get  out  the  silage.  Under 
such  circumstances  four  feet  is  deep  enough.  (Plumb.) 

Details  concerning  the  construction  of  stone,  brick, 
and  cement  silos  are  given  in  Prof.  Woll's  Book  on  Silage, 
and  in  Bulletin  No.  83  of  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station, 
by  Prof.  King  as  well  as  in  numerous  other  pamphlets, 
and  we  shall  not  take  up  further  space  here  with  the 
discussion  thereof.  The  same  holds  true  with  all  other 
forms  of  silo  construction  than  those  already  explained, 
except  the  one  kind,  where  silos  are  built  in  a  bay  of  the 
barn.  In  order  to  use  the  space  economically,  these  silos 
are  built  in  a  rectangular  form. 

Silos  in  the  Barn. 

A  large  number  of  silos  have  been  built  in  the  barn, 
especially  in  the  early  days  of  silo  construction.  Where 
the  necessary  depth  can  be  obtained  and  where  the  room 
can  be  spared,  such  silos  can  be  built  very  easily  and  at  a 
less  cost  than  a  separate  structure,  since  lighter  materials 
in  construction  may  be  used  in  this  case,  and  no  roof  will 
be  required  for  the  silo.  Silos  built  in  this  manner  have 
generally  the  advantage  of  being  near  at  hand.  Since 
feeding  time  comes  twice  a  day,  at  least,  throughout  the 
winter  and  spring,  a  few  steps  saved  in  hauling  the  silage 
mean  a  good  deal  in  the  aggregate.  Many  farmers  first 
made  silos  of  this  kind,  and,  later  on,  when  familiar  with! 
the  silage  and  siloing  process,  built  additional  separate 
structures. 


A  RECTANGULAR   SILO. 


107 


A  very  cheap  rectangular  silo  may  be  constructed  by 
erecting  strong  3x10  studding  around  a  bay  or  part  of  a 
bay,  and  lining  with  one  ply  good  matched  lumber  one- 
inch  thick.  Such  a  silo  has  been  in  use  at  the  Ottawa 
Station  for  eight  years,  and  has  given  good  results. 

The  main  objection  to  rectangular  or  square  silos  is 
that  it  is  very  difficult  to  make  the  corners  perfectly  tight, 
so  that  air  will  not  enter  at  these  points  and  cause  more 
or  less  of  the  silage  to  spoil  here.  Even  if  carefully  built, 
the  lateral  pressure  in  a  silo  filled  with  green  fodder  is 
often  great  enough  to  cause  the  boards  to  spring  and  thus 
let  air  in,  unless  special  precautions  have  been  taken  to 


Fig.  23.    Corner  of  rectangular  silo.     (Wheeler.) 

prevent  it.  One  way  of  avoiding  this  difficulty  is  to  par- 
tially round  off  the  corners,  by  placing  a  square  timber, 
split  diagonally,  in  each  of  the  corners.  Another  plan 
is  to  bevel  the  edge  of  a  ten-inch  plank  and  nail  it  in  the 
corners,  filling  in  behind  with  dry  dirt  or  sand.  Sawdust 
has  been  recommended,  but  should  not  be  used,  as  it  will 
draw  moisture  and  cause  the  plank  and  silo .  lining  to 
decay.  The  space  back  of  the  plank  may  also  be  left 
empty. 

The  arrangement  for  making  the  corners  of  a  square 
or  rectangular  silo  air-tight  shown  in  Fig.  23  was  published 
by  the  Geneva  Experiment  Station.  The  corners  are 
boarded  up,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  a  sheeting  of  paper 


108 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 


going  between  the  two  courses  of  boards.  The  partitions 
at  the  corners  can  be  put  across  after  the  first  course  of 
boards,  instead  of  after  the  lining  is  in  place,  as  shown  in 
the  illustration. 

The  silos  of  the  form  mentioned  may  be  strengthened 
at  the  corners  by  the  arrangement  recommended  by  Prof. 
Spillman  and  shown  in  Fig.  24.  Half-inch  bolts  are  used 


Fig.  24.     Cross  section  of  studding  at  the  corner  of  a  rec- 
tangular silo.    (Spillman.) 

to  hold  the  2x4  and  2x6  together.  The  bolts  are  not  more 
than  eighteen  inches  apart  from  the  bottom  up  to  about 
the  middle  of  the  studding.  Above  the  middle  they  may 
be  two  feet  apart;  they  may  be  reinforced  by  30d.  nails. 

Octagonal  Silos. 

A  number  of  octagonal  silos  have  been  built  in  recent 
years,  and  find  favor  with  their  owners  in  most  instances. 
If  properly  put  up  and  care  taken  to  fasten  the  girts 
securely  at  the  corners  with  plenty  of  spikes,  the  octag- 
onal silo  is  greatly  superior  to  the  square  type,  and  has 
nearly  every  advantage  of  the  round  silo,  and  can  readily 


OCTAGONAL   SILO. 


109 


be  constructed  by  anyone  handy  with  tools  with  the  assist- 
ance of  the  ordinary  farm  help. 

The  foundation  should  be  of  stone  or  brick  as  de- 
scribed for  various  other  forms  of  silos,  and  should  be 
laid  out  with  proper  dimensions  for  the  size  decided  upon. 
Brief  details  are  here  given  for  an  octagonal  silo  of  about 
the  same  capacity  as  a  round  silo,  20  feet  in  diameter  and 
of  equal  height. 

If  the  foundation  is  laid  out  so  that  the  corners  are 
in  the  circumference  of  a  circle  21  feet  in  diameter  the 
horizontal  girts  will  be  about  8  feet  long,  and  will  be  much 
stronger  and  better  able  to  withstand  the  lateral  pressure 
that  the  sides  of  a  square  silo  of  equal  capacity.  Details 
of  construction  are  shown  in  the  drawings,  Figs.  25  and  26. 
The  girts  should  be  3x8  in.  and  spiked  at  the  corners 


Fig.  25.  Perspective,  showing  construction  of  frame,  and 
double  lining  with  paper  between.  The  door  is  made,  of 
two  thicknesses  with  paper  between,  as  shown. 


110  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 

with  6  inch,  spikes,  up  to  nearly  one-half  of  the  height  of 
the  silo,  and  2x8  in.  the  rest  of  the  way,  fastened  with  20 
penny  spikes.  The  girts  should  be  16  inches  apart  at  the 
bottom  for  one-third  of  the  height  of  the  silo.  They  may 
be  18  inches  apart  the  second  third  of  the  distance,  and 
above  that  the  distance  between  them  can  be  increased 
till  they  are  2  feet  or  more  at  the  very  top.  A  double  row 
may  be  used  for  a  plate.  Sound  timber  only  should  be 
used.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  girts  securely 
spiked  at  the  corners,  so  that  the  joints  will  not  give. 
The  horizontal  girt  sections  take  the  place  of  hoops  in  the 
round  silo  and  must  be  strong.  Not  less  than  six  or  eight 
spikes  should  be  used  at  each  splice.  One  of  the  causes 
of  failure  in  home-made  silos  of  every  kind  is  that  the 
ordinary  carpenter,  who  has  probably  never  built  a  silo  be- 
fore, has  but  a  limited  idea  of  the  pressure  on  the  sides 
of  a  silo  30  or  more  feet  deep,  and  does  not  realize  the? 
disappointment  and  loss  occasioned  by  a  poorly  built  silo. 

A  simple  method  of  getting  the  walls  perpendicular 
is  to  first  lay  the  sill,  which  should  be  fastened  to  the 
wall  securely,  by  means  of  bolts  set  in  the  wall,  and  then 
erect  at  each  corner  and  on  the  inside  a  temporary  post 
or  scantling  to  serve  as  a  guide,  braced  in  position  so  that 
it  is  perpendicular  both  ways,  and  the  girts  then  laid  and 
spiked  in  position,  one  above  the  other. 

The  lining  is,  of  course,  put  on  up  and  down  and 
should  be  matched  and  of  good  thickness,  say  l1^  or  iy2 
if  but  one  layer  is  used.  If  two  layers,  it  need  not  be  so 
thick,  ^-inch  flooring,  and  the  outer  layer  not  necessarily 
matched.  The  corners  should  be  fitted  as  nicely  as  possi- 
ble, and  it  is  a  good  plan  to  block  out  the  corners,  as 
shown  at  Fig.  26,  a,  a,  a,  so  that  the  tongues  and  grooves 
can  be  properly  adjusted  to  each  other. 

John  Gould,  a  prominent  dairy  writer  and  lecturer, 
recommends,  where  one  thickness  of  matched  lumber  is 
used  in  the  above  manner,  that  the  lining  be  thoroughly 
coated  on  the  outside  with  heavy  application  of  coal  tar, 
or  other  similar  substance,  so  as  to  prevent  the  air  pene- 


METHOD  OF  LAYING  AND  BOLTING   SILL.     Ill 

trating  the  pores  of  the  lumber,  and  causing  the  silage  to 
dry  on  to  the  inner  surface. 

Any  style  of  door  can  be  used,  but  an  effective  con- 
tinuous door  is  shown  in  the  illustration.  If  any  of  the 
girts  be  cut  out  to  make  the  door  space  larger,  the  re- 
maining ones  should  be  correspondingly  reinforced. 

The  making  of  a  roof  for  such  a  silo  is  a  simple  mat- 
ter, and  a  dormer  window  will  assist  in  filling,  although 


Fig.  26.     Shoiving  method  of  laying  sill  and  bolting  same 
to  foundation  for  an  octagonal  silo. 

a  trap  door  may  be  used  in  case  the  filling  be  done  with 
a  blower.  Any  style  of  siding  may  be  used. 

Such  a  silo  if  well  built  will  be  durable,  satisfactory, 
have  nearly  all  the  advantages  of  a  round  silo,  and  in 
addition  will  be  a  much  more  stable  structure,  requiring 
no  tightening  of  the  hoops  from  time  to  time. 

Bills  of  materials  for  a  silo  built  to  21-foot  circle  and 
30  feet  high  are  given  below.  The  cost  will,  of  course, 
vary  with  the  locality. 


112 


HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 


Bills  of  materials  for  Octagonal  Silo  20x30  feet  outside 
measurement: 

Foundation    10    perches 

Girts     ._ 110  feet  3x8   }    8    or   16   foot 

900  feet  2x8  f       lengths. 

Rafters  , 230  feet  2x4x14  feet 

Siding    2500  feet 

Lining  2800  feet  1*4  inch  thick,  matched 

Dormer  Window 

Nails  and  spikes  . . . 300  Ibs. 

Shingles    4    M 

Paint    : . . .- 6    gallons 

Cost  of  Different  Kinds  of  Silos. 

The  cost  of  a  silo  will  depend  on  local  conditions  as 
to  price  of  labor  and  materials;  how  much  labor  has  to 
be  paid  for;  the  size  of  the  silo,  etc.  The  comparative 
data  for  the  cost  of  two  round  silos,  13  and  25  feet  in 
diameter,  and  30  feet  deep,  is  given  by  Prof.  King,  as 
shown  in  the  following  table: 


KINDS   OF   SILO. 

13  FEET  INSIDE 
DIAMETER. 

25  FEET  INSIDE 
DIAMETER. 

Without 
roof. 

With 
roof. 

Without 
roof. 

With 

roof. 

Stone  Silo  . 

$151 
243 

142 
131 
133 

168 
128 
127 
101 

$175 
273 

23Q 
190 
185 

185 
222 
183 
144 

$264 
437 

310 
239 
244 

308 
235 
135 
195 

f328 
494 

442 
369 
363 

432 
358 
289 
240- 

Brick  Silo  

Brick-lined    Silo,    4   inches 
thick 

Brick-lined,  2  inches  thick.  .  . 
Lathed  and  plastered  sHo  
Wood  Silo  with  galvanized 
iron  . 

Wood  Silo  with  paper  
Stave  Silo 

Cheapest  wood  Silo  

During  the  spring  of  1895  Prof.  Woll  made  inquiries 
in  regard  to  the  cost  of  silos  of  different  kinds  (not  only 
circular  ones)  built  by  farmers  in  different  states  in  the 


COST  OF  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  SILOS.          113 

Union.     The     results     of    this     inquiry     are     summarized 
briefly  below. 

The  cheapest  silos  are  those  built  in  bays  of  barns, 
as  would  be  expected,  since  roof  and  outside  lining  are 
here  already  at  hand.  Number  of  silos  included,  fourteen; 
average  capacity,  140  tons;  average  cost  of  silos,  $92,  or 
65  cents  per  ton  capacity. 

Next  comes  the  square  or  rectangular  wooden  silos. 
Number  of  silos  included,  twenty-five;  average  capacity, 
194  tons;  average  cost  of  silos,  $285,  or  $1.46  per  ton 
capacity. 

The  round  silos  follow  closely  the  square  wooden  ones 
in  point  of  cost.  Only  seven  silos  were  included,  all  but 
one  of  which  were  made  of  wood.  Average  capacity,  237 
tons;  average  cost,  $368,  or  $1.54  per  ton  capacity.  The 
data  for  the  six  round  wooden  silos  are  as  follows: 
Average  capacity,  228  tons;  average  cost,  $340,  or  $1.52 
per  ton  capacity.  The  one  round  cement  silo  cost  $500, 
and  had  a  capacity  of  300  tons  (dimensions:  diameter,  30 
feet;  depth,  21  feet);  cost  per  ton  capacity,  $1.67. 

The  stone  or  cement  silos  are  the  most  expensive  in 
first  cost,  as  is  shown  by  the  data  obtained.  Number  of 
silos  included,  nine;  average  capacity,  288  tons;  average 
cost,  $577,  or  $1.93  per  ton  capacity. 

The  great  difference  in  the  cost  of  different  silos  of 
the  same  kind  is  apparent  without  much  reflection.  The 
range  in  cost  per  ton  capacity  in  the  25  square  wooden 
silos  included  in  the  preceding  summary  was  from  70  cents 
to  $3.60.  The  former  figures  were  obtained  with  a  144-ton 
silo,  20x18x20  feet;  and  the  latter  with  a  140-ton  silo,  built 
as  follows:  Dimensions,  14x28x18  feet;  2x12x18  feet  stud- 
clings,  set  12  inches  apart;  two  thicknesses  of  dimension 
boards  inside,  with  paper  between,  sheeting  outside  with 
paper  nailed  on  studding;  cement  floor.  Particulars  are 
lacking  as  regards  the  construction  of  the  first  silo  be- 
yond its  dimensions. 

It  may  be  in  order  to  state,  in  comparing  the  average 
data  for  the  cost  of  the  different  silo  types,  that  the  round 

8 


114  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 

silos  were  uniformly  built  better  than  the  rectangular 
wooden  silos  included,  and  according  to  modern  require- 
ments, while  many  of  the  latter  were  old  and  of  compara- 
tively cheap  construction,  so  that  the  figures  cannot  be 
taken  to  represent  the  relative  value  of  rectangular  and 
round  silos  built  equally  well. 

A  good  many  figures  entering  into  the  preceding  sum- 
maries are  doubtless  somewhat  too  low,  if  all  labor  put 
on  the  silo  is  to  be  paid  for,  for  in  some  cases  the  cost 
of  work  done  by  the  farmers  themselves  was  not  figured 
in  with  other  expenses.  As  most  farmers  would  do  some 
of. the  work  themselves,  the  figures  given  may,  however, 
be  taken  to  represent  the  cash  outlay  in  building  silos. 
In  a  general  way,  it  may  be  said  that  a  silo  can  be  built 
in  the  bay  of  a  barn  for  less  than  75  cents  per  ton 
capacity;  a  round  or  a  good  square  or  rectangular  wooden 
silo  for  about  $1.50,  and  a  stone  or  cement  silo  for  about 
$2  per  ton  capacity,  all  figures  being  subject  to  variations 
according  to  local  prices  for  labor  and  materials. 

Rennie,  a  Canadian  writer,  gives  the  following  com- 
parative figures  as  to  cost  of  silos:  Round  stave  silos, 
75  cents  per  ton  capacity;  round  wooden  silos,  $1.25  and 
cement  silos,  $1.25  to  $1.50  per  ton  capacity. 

The  cost  of  stave  silos  will  of  course  vary  with  the 
kind  of  lumber  used,  cost  of  labor,  and  other  expenses, 
as  in  case  of  other  types  of  silos.  It  is  evident  that  stave 
silos  can  as  a  rule  be  built  cheaper  than  other  kinds  of 
silos,  both  from  the  fact  that  less  material  is  used  in 
their  construction,  and  because  the  labor  bill  is  smaller. 
One  of  the  first  stave  silos  described,  built  in  Ontario, 
Canada,  cost  $75.00;  capacity,  140  tons.  Other  and  better 
built  stave  silos  have  been  put  up  for  $100  for  a  100-ton 
silo,  and  this  may  be  considered  an  average  price  for 
such  a  silo,  made  of  white  pine,  hemlock  or  any  lumber 
that  is  cheapest  in  the  particular  locality  where  the  silo 
Is  to  be  built.  If  built  of  Southern  cypress,  and  complete 
with  conical  roof  and  doors,  the  price  of  stave  silos  will 
In  the  North  come  to  about  $1.50  per  ton  capacity,  small 


ESTIMATE   OF   MATERIALS.  115 

silos  being  a  little  dearer,  and  larger  ones  a  little  cheaper 
than  this  average  figure. 

Estimating  Material  and  Cost  of  Silos. 

Several  writers  on  silo  construction  have  published 
bills  of  materials  used  in  the  construction  of  silos  of 
moderate  sizes  of  the  following  three  types:  Wisconsin 
Improved  Silo,  Modified  Wisconsin  Silo,  and  Stave  Silo. 
Farmers  contemplating  building  a  silo,  can  use  these 
estimates  for  figuring  out  the  approximate  cost  of  silos 
of  the  three  kinds  under  his  conditions  as  to  cost  of 
materials  and  labor.  The  estimates  are  made  for  silos 
built  in  the  open,  on  level  land.  On  hillsides  deeper  walls 
may  be  made  to  advantage,  and  where  the  silo  is  located 
within  a  building  no  roof  will  be  needed.  Consequently 
various  factors  may  alter  the  applications  of  these  esti- 
mates, which  are  only  offered  as  suggestive,  with  the 
hope  they  may  prove  helpful.  The  first  three  estimates 
of  materials  are  published  by  Prof.  Plumb,  while  the 
others  have  been  furnished  by  Professors  King  and 
Withycombe. 

Estimate  of  Materials  for  Wisconsin 
Improved  Silos. 

Size,  30  feet  deep,  14  feet  diameter.    Capacity  90  tons. 

Brick — 3375  for  foundation,  1  foot  thick,  3  feet  deep. 

Studs— 50  pieces  2x4,  16  feet  long. 

Studs — 50  pieces  2x4,  14  feet  long. 

Flooring  for  doors— 32  feet,  4  matched. 

Sheeting— 3000  feet,  %  inch,  resawed  from  2x6 — 16  foot 
plank  sawed  3  times,  dressed  one  side  to  uniform  thick- 
ness for  inside  lining  of  two  layers. 

Lining — 1500  feet  of  same  for  outside. 

Tar  building  paper — 200  yards,  water  and  acid-proof. 

Nails — 200  Ibs.  8-penny;  200  Ibs.  10-penny. 

Spikes— 20  Ibs. 

Rafters— 22,  2x4,  10  feet  long,  for  usual  ridge  roof. 


116  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 

Sheeting  for  roof — 350  feet  of  16  foot  boards. 
Shingles — 3000. 
Shingle  nails — 12  Ibs. 

Dormer  window  for  filling  through.  Paint — 7  gallons, 
providing  two  coats. 

Cement — 2  barrels,  for  cementing  bottom. 

Estimate  of  Materials  for  a  Modified 
Wisconsin  Silo. 

Same  capacity  as  preceding. 

Brick — 350  for  foundation,  8  in.  wide,  5  in.  thick. 

Studs— 50  pieces  2x4,  16  ft.  long. 

Studs — 50  pieces  2x4,  14  ft.  long. 

Sheeting— 3000  ft.  y2  in.  resawed  from  2x6,  16  ft.  plank 
sawed  three  times,  dressed  to  uniform  thickness  for  in- 
side lining  of  two  layers. 

Tar  building  paper — 200  yards  water  and  acid-proof. 

Nails — 150  Ibs.  8  penny. 

Spikes — 12  Ibs. 

No  outer  siding,  roof  or  floor  is  figured  on  or  provided 
for  in  this  construction. 

Estimate  of  Materials  for  a  Stave  Silo. 

Size  12x28  ft.,  capacity,  60  tons. 
Bricks— 1800  for  foundation,  1  foot  thick,  2  ft.  deep. 
Staves— 77  2x6,  16  ft.  dressed  4  sides. 
Staves— 77  2x6,  12  ft.,  dressed  4  sides. 
Rods — 10,   19 V2   ft.   long   y2   in.   iron,  with   %   threaded 
ends  and  nuts. 

Staples — 2  gross,  ^x2  in. 

Iron  tighteners — 20  holding  ends  of  hoops. 

Rafters — 2  2x6  pieces,  14  ft.  long  for  roof  center. 

Rafters — 2  2x6  pieces,  13  ft.  long,  for  roof  next  center. 

Side  rafters— 48  ft.  2x4  pieces. 

Roof  sheeting — 170  ft.  common. 

Tin  sheeting— 196  ft. 

Cement  for  floor — 2  bbls. 


ESTIMATE   OF   MATERIALS.  117 

Estimate  of  Materials  for  a  Wisconsin 
Improved  Silo. 

Size  30  ft.  deep,  20  ft.  inside  diameter,  capacity  200 
tons. 

Stone  foundation — 7.5  perch. 

Studs— 2x4,  14  and  16  ft.,  1,491  ft. 

Rafters— 2x4,  12  ft.,  208  ft. 

Roof  boards — Fencing,  500  feet. 

Shingles— 6  M. 

Siding— Rabbeted,  2,660  ft. 

Lining — Fencing,  ripped,  2,800  ft. 

Tarred  paper — 740  Ibs. 

Coal  tar— 1  bbl. 

Hardware — $6.00. 

Painting  (60  cents  per  square)  $13.20. 

Cementing  bottom — $5.00. 

Carpenter  labor — (at  $3  per  M  and  board)  $33.17. 

The  estimated  cost  of  the  last  silo  is  $246.39;  it  is  an 
outside,  wholly  independent  structure,  except  connected 
with  the  barn  in  the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  20,  with  en- 
trance and  feeding  chute  toward  the  barn. 

Estimate  of  Materials  for  Stave  Silo. 

12  ft.  in  diameter,  24  ft.  deep,  capacity,  49  tons.    . 

1  2-3  yards  of  rock  gravel. 

4  barrels  of  sand. 

1  barrel  of  cement. 

2260  ft.  tongued  and  grooved  staves. 

72  ft.  3x6,  24  ft.  door  frames. 

358  ft.  %  in.  round  iron  for  hoops  and  bolts,  weight 
465  Ibs. 

9  lugs. 

54  nuts. 

Preservative   ($1.50). 

If  the  silo  is  constructed  outside,  materials  for  roof 
and  painting  are  to  be  added  to  the  preceding  list. 

Although  most  of  the  foregoing  descriptions  of  stave 


118  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 

silos  do  not  mention  tongued  and  grooved  staves,  the 
latest  practice  indicates  that,  if  properly  done,  it  is  a 
decided  advantage  to  have  the  staves  matched,  also 
slightly  beveled.  The  silo  made  in  this  manner  will  not 
be  so  liable  to  go  to  pieces  when  empty.  This  is  the 
chief  objection  to  the  stave  silo,  and  numerous  cases 
are  on  record  where  stave  silos  standing  in  exposed  places 
have  blown  over  when  empty.  It  is  recommended,  there- 
fore, that  stave  silos  be  attached  to  the  barn  by  means 
of  a  feeding  chute,  and  in  the  case  of  high  or  exposed 
silos  it  is  well  to  make  use  of  guy  rods  or  wires  in  addi- 
tion. Indeed,  some  manufacturers  of  stave  silos  now  rec- 
ommend these  on  some  of  their  silos,  and  make  provis- 
ions for  them. 

Preservation  of  Silo. 

A  silo  building  will  not  remain  sound  for  many  years 
unless  special  precautions  are  taken  to  preserve  it.  This 
holds  good  of  all  kinds  of  silos,  but  more  especially  of 
wooden  ones,  since  cement  coating  in  a  stone  silo,  even 
if  only  fairly  well  made,  will  better  resist  the  action  of 
the  silage  juices  than  the  wood-work  will  be  able  to  keep 
sound  in  the  presence  of  moisture,  high  temperature,  and 
an  abundance  of  bacterial  life. 

In  case  of  wooden  silos  it  is  necessary  to  apply  some 
material  which  will  render  the  wood  impervious  to  water, 
and  preserve  it  from  decay.  A  great  variety  of  prepara- 
tions have  been  recommended  and  used  for  this  purpose. 
Coal  tar  has  been  applied  by  a  large  number  of  farmers, 
and  has  been  found  effective  and  durable.  It  may  be  put 
on  either  hot,  alone  or  mixed  with  resin,  or  dissolved  in 
gasoline.  If  it  is  to  be  applied  hot,  some  of  the  oil  con- 
tained in  the  tar  must  previously  be  burnt  off.  The  tar 
is  poured  into  an  iron  kettle,  a  handful  of  straw  is  ignited 
and  then  thrown  into  the  kettle,  which  will  cause  the  oil 
to  flash  and  burn  off.  The  tar  is  sufficiently  burnt  when 
it  will  string  out  in  fine  threads,  a  foot  or  more  in  length, 
from  a  stick  which  has  been  thrust  into  the  blazing  kettle 


PRESERVATION  OF  SILOS.  119 

and  afterward  plunged  into  cold  water.  The  fire  is  then 
put  out  by  placing  a  tight  cover  over  the  kettle.  The 
kettle  must  be  kept  over  the  fire  until  the  silo  lining  has 
been  gone  over.  A  mop  or  a  small  whisk  broom  cut  short, 
so  it  is  stiff,  may  serve  for  putting  on  the  tar. 

Coal  tar  and  gasoline  have  also  been  used  by  many 
with  good  success.  About  half  a  gallon  of  coal  tar  and 
two-thirds  of  a  gallon  of  gasoline  are  mixed  at  a  time, 
stirring  it  while  it  is  being  put  on.  Since  gasoline  is 
highly  inflammable,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  have  any 
fire  around  when  this  mixture  is  applied.  Asbestos  paint 
has  also  been  recommended  for  the  preservation  of  silo 
walls,  and  would  seem  to  be  well  adapted  for  this  purpose. 

Many  silos  are  preserved  by  application  of  a  mixture 
of ''equal  parts  of  boiled  linseed  oil  and  black  oil,  or  one 
part  of  the  former  to  two  of  the  latter.  This  mixture, 
applied  every  other  year,  before  filling  time,  seems  to  pre- 
serve the  lining  perfectly.  In  building  round  silos,  it  is 
recommended  to  paint  the  boards  with  hot  coal  tar,  and 
placing  the  painted  sides  face  to  face. 

Manufacturers  of  stave  silos  and  fixtures  put  up  spec- 
ial preparations  for  preserving  the  silos,  which  they  send 
out  with  the  staves.  These  are  generally  simple  com- 
pounds similar  to  those  given  in  the  preceding,  and  are 
sold  to  customers  at  practically  cost  price. 

Walls  of  wooden  silos  that  have  been  preserved  by 
one  or  the  other  of  these  methods  will  only  keep  sound  and 
free  from  decay  if  the  silos  are  built  so  as  to  insure 
good  ventilation.  Preservatives  will  not  save  a  non-venti- 
lated silo  structure  from  decay. 

Plastered  wooden  silos  are  preserved,  as  we  have 
seen  by  applying  a  whitewash  of  pure  cement  as  often  as 
found  necessary,  which  may  be  every  two  or  three  years. 
The  same  applies  to  stone  and  cement  silos.  The  degree 
of  moisture  and  acidity  in  the  silage  corn  will  doubtless 
determine  how  often  the  silo  walls  have  to  be  gone  over 
with  a  cement  wash;  a  very  acid  silage,  made  from  im- 
mature corn  will  be  likely  to  soften  the  cement  coating 


120  HOW  TO  BUILD  A  SILO. 

sooner    than    so-called    sweet    silage    made    from    nearly 
mature  corn. 

A  considerable  number  of  wood  silos  are  in  use  that 
were  not  treated  on  the  inside  with  any  preservative  or 
paint  and  have  stood  very  well.  Indeed,  some  writers 
maintain  that  if  the  silo  is  well  protected  on  the  outside, 
a  stave  silo  receives  little  if  any  benefit  from  inside 
coatings. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CONCRETE  OR  CEMENT  SILOS. 

In  the  preceding  chapter  we  have  attempted  to  deal 
with  wood,  brick  and  stone  in  silo  construction. 

Of  late  years,  however,  a  big  demand  has  sprung  up 
for  a  more  substantial  structure.  This  is  evidenced  by 
the  large  number  of  factory  and  other  buildings  spring- 
ing up  in  all  parts  of  the  country  made  of  concrete  and 
cement  blocks.  This  construction  is  getting  to  be  very 
popular  in  so  far  as  silos  are  concerned;  especially  is  this 
true  where  permanency  is  desired,  such  as  on  established 
stock  farms,  etc. 

Three  forms  of  concrete  silos  are  in  successful  use. 
They  are  known  as  the  Monolithic  Concrete  Silos,  both 
solid  and  hollow  wall,  and  the  Concrete  Block  Silos.  In 
the  extreme  north,  the  hollow  wall  type  should  be  chosen 
to  prevent  freezing;  otherwise,  the  cost,  fixed  largely  by 
local  conditions,  should  be  the  deciding  feature. 

In  the  past  the  high  first  cost  of  these  forms  of  con- 
struction has  been  the  chief  factor  against  their  more  ex- 
tensive use,  but  this  has  been  due  to  our  insufficient  knowl- 
edge as  to  the  best  and  most  economical  methods  in 
handling  material.  The  price  of  lumber  has  been  steadily 
rising,  while  that  of  good  Portland  Cement  has  been  de- 
creasing, and  good  qualities  can  now  be  obtained  at  a  fair 
price;  it  seems,  therefore,  to  be  generally  conceded  that 
the  concrete  or  cement  block  silo  will  be  the  silo  of  the 
future. 

The  chief  advantages  claimed  for  the  concrete  silos, 
when  properly  built,  are  that  they  are  absolutely  air-tight 
and  water-tight,  hence  will  neither  shrink  in  hot,  dry 
weather  nor  swell  up  in  damp  weather;  that  they  main- 
tain a  more  even  temperature  because  concrete  is  a  great 

121 


122  CONCRETE  OR  CEMENT  SILOS. 

non-conductor  of  heat  and  cold;  that  the  silage  acids  that 
affect  wood  and  metal  have  no  effect  on  concrete;  that 
they  are  vermin  proof;  that  they  will  last  practically  for-, 
ever  and  need  no  repairs,  and  that  they  are  fire  proof. 

The  general  concensus  of  opinion  among  those  who 
have  made  a  study  of  the  matter  seems  to  be  well  voiced 
in  Bulletin  No.  102  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
of  the  University  of  Illinois  when  it  says:  "From  what  we 
know  now  the  round  wood  silo  plastered  with  cement 
seems  to  be  the  best  construction,  but  the  indications  are 
that  when  we  learn  to  handle  concrete  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage this  will  be  the  material  for  building  silos." 

The  United  States  Government  has,  in  every  state  in 
the  Union,  established  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations 
for  the  purpose  of  giving  the  American  farmer  and  Ameri- 
can Agriculture  in  general  the  benefits  of  the  best  and 
most  improved  methods.  Several  of  these  stations  have 
investigated  the  subject  of  silo  construction  and  we  feel 
that  we  cannot  do  better  than  quote  some  of  their  results. 
The  station  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin  very  clearly 
introduces  the  situation  in  ttieir  Bulletin  No.  125  as  fol- 
lows: 

"Cement  is  being  more  and  more  widely  used  in  all 
kinds  of  construction  work.  It  is  not  strange,  therefore, 
that  it  is  being  tried  in  silo  construction.  Concrete  has 
been  used  for  a  long  time  in  silo  foundations,  but  it  is 
now  being  used  in  the  superstructure  also.  As  yet,  how- 
ever no  careful  work  has  been  done  to  determine  what 
is  the  best  method  to  follow  in  construction  of  silos  in 
concrete.  Concrete  in  itself  is  very  strong,  much  stronger 
than  ordinary  brick  or  stone  masonry,  that  is,  providing 
good  cement  is  used  and  the  concrete  properly  made. 

"Reinforced  concrete,  or  concrete  steel,  is  very  much 
stronger  than  ordinary  concrete.  Reinforced  concrete  is 
concrete  in  which  steel  rods  or  wires  are  imbedded  in 
such  a  way  as  to  take  the  strain.  By  placing  wires  or 
rods  in  the  concrete  it  is  possible  to  make  the  walls  or 
beams  much  thinner  or  lighter  than  would  otherwise  be 


ILLUSTRATION. 


123 


possible  and  obtain  the  required  strength.  By  reinforcing 
the  concrete  with  steel  much  cement  is  saved.  In  Europe, 
and  particularly  in  France,  reinforced  concrete  has  been 
very  extensively  used  and  used  with  much  boldness.  A 
simple  instance  will  illustrate: 

"A  large  elevator  and  mill  in  Prance  was  constructed 
wholly  of  reinforced  concrete,  walls,  floors,  beams,  and 
posts.  The  mill  is  112  feet  high  from  foundation  to  roof. 
The  roof  is  used  as  a  reservoir  holding  100  tons  of  water. 
The  capacity  of  the  elevator  is  7,000  tons.  The  walls  are 
only  12  inches  thick  at  the  foot  and  4  Inches  at  the  top. 


Fig.  28.  Large  cement  silo  and  barns  at  Posto  Zootechnico  Central  (Ex- 
periment Station)  at  Sao  Paulo,  Brazil,  South  America.  Silo  being  filled 
with  No.  17  Ohio  Blower  Machine. 


124  CONCRETE  OR  CEMENT  SILOS. 

"To  obtain  best  results  in  concrete  it  is  necessary  first 
to  use  good  cement,  and,  second,  the  work  must  be  care- 
fully and  skillfully  done.  This  is  particularly  true  of  re- 
inforced concrete.  The  mixing  of  the  concrete  requires 
skill  as  well  as  does  the  tamping  of  the  concrete  in  the 
forms.  The  proportion  of  sand  to  mix  with  the  gravel  or 
crushed  stone  will  vary  somewhat  with  the  character  of 
the  gravel  and  the  sand  and  it  requires  experience  to 
know  just  the  right  proportions  to  use.  The  proportion  of 
cement  to  sand  will  vary  with  the  cement  and  with  the 
sand.  This  again  involves  skill.  The  amount  of  water  to 
use  will  vary  considerably  with  circumstances.  If  the 
cement  is  too  wet  or  too  dry  best  results  will  not  be  ob- 
tained. Experience  and  skill  are  again  involved  here. 

"If  it  were  possible  to  have  the  work  skillfully  done 
a  cement  silo  16  feet  in  diameter  and  35  feet  high  could 
be  built  of  reinforced  concrete  with  walls  only  2  or  3 
inches  thick  and  be  abundantly  strong.  But  labor  suffi- 
ciently skilled  to  do  this  would  cost  too  much,  so  that 
it  would  be  cheaper  to  use  twice  as  much  cement;  make 
wall  6  or  8  inches  thick  and  use  less  skilled  labor.  If  the 
work  is  carefully  done  using  ordinary  labor  it  is  prac- 
ticable to  build  silos  16  feet  in  diameter  and  35  feet  high 
with  6  or  8  inch  walls  if  the  steel  rod  is  laid  in  the  wall 
every  2  or  3  feet." 

Reinforced  concrete  offers  great  possibilities  for  silo 
building.  The  lateral  pressure  on  the  walls  when  the  silo 
is  filled  is  very  great,  but  the  circular  shape  renders  it 
very  easy  to  reinforce.  The  freezing  of  the  silage  has 
heretofore  been  the  one  disadvantage  of  solid  walls,  espe- 
cially in  cold  climates,  but  this  has  been  largely  overcome 
by  machines  now  on  the  market  that  easily  and  success- 
fully build  reinforced  and  continuous  hollow  walls.  (See 
pages  165  and  166  for  special  articles  on  frozen  silage.) 

The  foundation,  as  in  all  other  concrete  structures,  is 
very  important.  Not  only  must  it  serve  as  an  anchor  to 
protect  the  structure  against  wind  pressure,  but  it  must 
also  be  very  strong  and  firm  or  the  great  weight  upon  it 


REINFORCED  CONCRETE.  125 

will  cause  it  to  settle  unevenly,  in  which  event  the  walls 
are  liable  to  crack  and  so  admit  air;  consequently,  spoiled 
silage  will  be  the  result. 

The  Missouri  State  Board  of  Agriculture  in  its  March, 
1906,  bulletin  describes  a  concrete  silo  built  by  Mr.  C.  J. 
W.  Jones,  Roanoke,  Mo.,  in  the  summer  of  1905,  as  follows: 
"It  is  16  by  40  feet  inside  measurement,  it  being  9  feet  in 
the  ground.  He  first  dug  the  hole  and  leveled  the  bottom. 
Then  started  the  inside  form,  which  was  made  of  old 
pieces  of  fence  boards  stood  on  end  around  the  circle  and 
held  in  place  by  thin  limber  boards  tacked  onto  them.  He 
also  had  a  center  pole  to  guide  by  and  brace  to.  The  bot- 
tom wall  was  made  thick  and  tamped  against  the  earth 
bank.  When  the  level  of  the  ground  was  reached  he  care- 
fully leveled  up  the  work  and  started  the  outside  form, 
which  was  made  of  a  band  of  iron,  20  inches  wide  and 
53.43  feet  long,  rolled  to  form  the  circle  and  was  fastened 
with  clamps  at  the  ends.  The  silo  being  16  feet  in  diame- 
ter and  the  walls  6  inches  thick,  the  form  is  then  17  feet 
in  diameter.  This  was  leveled  and  the  space  between  it 
and  the  inner  wall  of  boards  filled  with  concrete  and 
tamped.  When  this  hardened  the  form  was  loosened, 
raised  and  screwed  tight  again  after  getting  it  level;  the 
space  again  filled  and  so  on  to  the  top.  The  inner  wall 
was  raised  as  needed,  being  braced  against  the  center 
pole  from  all  sides." 

The  wall  was  reinforced  to  prevent  cracking  by  build- 
ing a  wire  rope  into  it  every  few  feet.  The  door  frames 
were  built  into  the  wall  while  it  was  being  made.  The 
material  for  the  silo  cost  about  $150.00. 

We  quote  from  Bulletin  No.  125  of  the  Wisconsin 
station: 

"A  common  type  of  form  used  in  making  a  continuous 
wall  or  monolithic  structure  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  41.  A  is 
the  outside  form  and  B  the  inside  form.  These  forms  are 
made  as  segments  of  the  circle  6  or  10  feet  in  length  and 
1%  to  3  feet  deep.  A  form  is  made  by  taking  two  pieces 
of  plank  2x12  or  2x14,  LL  and  UU,  Fig.  41  A,  sawing  them 


126 


CONCRETE  OR  CEMENT  SiLOS. 


out  to  the  curvature  of  the  circle.  These  are  placed  hori- 
zontally as  girts  and  the  short  planks  P  are  set  vertically 
nailing  them  to  the  girts,  LU.  The  form  41  B  is  made  in 
the  reverse  of  41  A. 

"In  building  the  wall,  form  B  is  set  inside  of  form  A 
and  6  to  12  inches  from  it  depending  on  the  thickness  de- 
sired for  the  wall,  and  the  concrete  is  filled  in  between  the 
forms." 


A      Oute/de  Form 


£.      Inside  Form 

Fig.  41.  Illustrates  method  of  making  form  for  construct- 
ing concrete  walls.  The  forms  are  made  of  plank  and  are 
made  in  sections  4  to  ip  feet  long,  requiring  5  to  8  sec- 
tions to  complete  the  circle. 

—Courtesy  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station. 


CEMENT  BLOCKS. 


127 


Cement  Blocks. 

Continuing,  the  Bulletin  just  mentioned  has  the  follow- 
ing regarding  cement  block  silos: 

Cement  blocks  are  now  made  in  a  great  variety  of 
forms  and  these  are  being  used  to  some  extent  in  silo  con- 
struction. Walls  built  of  cement  blocks,  however,  are  not 
so  strong  as  are  walls  in  which  the  concrete  is  built  in 
place,  making  what  is  known  as  a  monolithic  structure. 
When  cement  blocks  are  used  it  is  necessary  to  use  bands 
or  rods  in  the  wall  laying  them  between  the  courses  the 
same  as  in  the  stone  or  brick  construction. 

Cement  blocks  to  be  used  in  silo  construction  are 
usually  made  with  curved  sides,  the  curvature  being  that 
of  the  silo  in  question.  A  common  type  of  block  for  this 
purpose  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  39.  The  blocks  are  made 
hollow,  holes  being  left  at  H  and  H.  The  blocks  are  made 
with  a  dovetailed  tenon  at  one  end,  as  at  T,  and  a  dove- 
tailed mortise  at  the  other  end,  as  at  M,  BO  that  when 
the  blocks  are  laid  on  the  wall  they  interlock.  The  blocks 
are  sometimes  made  with  a  small  groove  near  the  outside 
edge  as  G,  G,  and  on  every  third  or  fourth  course  a  small 


Fig.  39.  Illustrates  a  type  of  concrete  block  used  in  silo  construction. 
H.  H.  are  holes  left  in  blocks.  T.  and  M.  are^  dove-tailed  tenon  and 
mortise  so  made  that  blocks  interlock  when  laid  on  the  wall.  G.  is  a 
groove  made  in  block  to  imbed  iron  rod  for  reinforcing  the  wall. 

— Courtesy  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station. 


128 


CONCRETE  OR  CEMENT  SILOS. 


rod  (^-inch  iron)  is  laid  in  this  groove  and  embedded  in 
the  masonry. 

The  cement  block  walls  can  be  built  more  cheaply  than 
can  the  monolithic  walls,  providing  the  building  is  not 
more  than  a  mile  or  two  from  the  factory  where  the  blocks 
are  made,  and  in  some  instances  the  manufacturers  will 
move  out  their  forms,  mixers  and  other  utensils  for  mak- 
ing cement  blocks  and  make  the  blocks  at  the  building  site 
and  still  build  more  cheaply  than  the  monolith  can  be 
built.  It  is  possible  to  do  this  because  the  work  can  be 
done  with  greater  facility  on  the  ground  level  than  up  in 
the  air  on  scaffolding.  Cement  blocks  are  turned  out 
rapidly  in  a  factory  where  all  the  facilities  are  at  hand. 

Cement  blocks  are  usually  made  of  finer  materials 
than  are  the  solid  monolithic  walls.  The  blocks  are  made 
of  sand  and  cement;  or  if  any  gravel  is  used,  it  is  very 
fine  gravel,  whereas,  in  the  continuous  wall,  monolithic 
construction,  coarser  gravel  or  crushed  stone  is  more 
commonly  used.  This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  the 
monolithic  wall  is  stronger  than  the  block  wall. 

The  continuous  wall  may  be  made  with  holes  or  spaces 
the  same  as  the  holes  H,  H,  in  the  block,  Fig.  39.  This  is 


Fig.  40.     Illustrates  a  tapering  wood  block  used  in  making  hollow  con- 
crete walls. — Courtesy  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station. 


TO  MAINTAIN  THE  CEMENT  LINING.  129 

accomplished  by  using  short  pieces  of  plank  with  smooth 
sides  tapering  toward  one  end,  as  shown  in  Fig.  40.  These 
tapering  wood  blocks  are  set  in  the  forms  two  or  three 
inches  apart  near  the  center  of  the  wall  and  the  concrete 
filled  in  around  them.  After  the  first  "set,"  that  is,  after 
a  few  hours  the  tapering  blocks  are  drawn  out  leaving  the 
hollow  walls  and  the  forms  are  raised  the  next  day  or  the 
day  following  and  the  process  repeated." 

To  Maintain  the  Cement  Lining. — The  Cement  Lining 
or  the  Cement  Block,  if  not  properly  cared  for,  is  certain 
to  become  porous  or  to  crack,  due  to  the  action  of  the 
acids  in  the  silage.  All  such  linings  should  be  treated  to 
a  wash  of  cement  once  about  every  two  years.  A  good 
wash  is  made  by  mixing  Portland  Cement  with  water,  mak- 
ing the  mixture  the  consistency  of  white  wash,  and  apply- 
ing it  with  a  white  wash  brush  or  spray  pump,  mixing 
only  a  gallon  or  two  at  a  time  and  applying  it  at  once. 

When  filling  the  silo,  it  has  been  recommended  to  use 
plenty  of  water  around  the  edges  next  to  the  wall. 

Fig.  42  illustrates  a  cement  block  silo  built  by  Mr. 
Alfred  S.  Dunlap,  Centre,  Rails  County,  Mo.  It  is  16x32 
feet  inside  and  extends  18  inches  into  the  ground.  Writ- 
ing to  the  Missouri  State  Board  of  Agriculture  he  says: 
"The  blocks  are  6x6  inches  by  2  feet  long.  Used  200  sacks 
of  Portland  or  Atlas  brand  cement  in  the  foundation  and 
blocks.  1400  blocks  were  required  to  build  it.  Just  what 
the  cost  was  I  do  not  know,  as  my  farm  help  worked  at 
making  the  blocks,  commencing  in  the  spring,  and  working 
at  odd  times.  It,  perhaps,  cost  $275.00,  but  I  did  not  haul 
my  sand  and  gravel  more  than  100  rods.  I  used  a  No.  14 
cutter  and  a  10  horse-power  traction  engine,  and  did  the 
work  of  cutting  to  my  entire  satisfaction.  We  worked 
three  days  and  filled  it  about  two-thirds  full,  and  filled 
with  corn  grown  on  bottom  lands  and  very  heavy." 

Mr.  J.  O.  Bailey,  Kirksville,  Mo.,  writing  to  the  same 
Board  of  Agriculture  gives  an  instructive  description  of 
the  building  of  his  16x32  silo. 

"I  made  the  blocks  myself — size  8  by  8  by  24  inches, 
9 


130  CONCRETE  OR  CEMENT  SILOS. 

curved  enough  so  that  25  of  them  would  lay  a  complete 
circle,  16  feet  in  diameter  in  the  clear.  Proportioned  the 
cement  and  sand  1  to  5,  i.  e.,  1  part  cement  to  5  parts 
sand.  It  took  about  50  yards  of  sand  and  20>5  sacks  of 
cement.  I  also  laid  a  No.  9  wire  between  each  layer  of 


Fig.  42.     Cement  block  silo.    The  kind  built  by  Mr.  Dunlap  of 
Centre,  Rails  county,  Mo. — Courtesy  Hoard's  Dairyman. 


ILLUSTRATION. 


131 


132  CONCRETE  OR  CEMENT  SILOS. 

blocks  up  twenty  feet.  I  don't  think  now  it  is  really 
necessary  to  use  the  wire. 

"I  had  a  mason  to  superintend  making  of  the  blocks, 
but  any  one  with  average  intelligence  can  make  the  blocks 
as  good  as  a  mason.  The  main  thing  is  to  get  sand  and 
cement  thoroughly  mixed.  It  does  not  want  to  be  too  wet, 
just  moist  enough  to  pack  good  in  the  mold.  After  the 
blocks  have  been  made  half  a  day  or  so  they  should  be 
wet  every  day;  this  keeps  them  from  drying  too  fast  and 
from  cracking. 

"I  hired  a  mason  to  lay  up  the  blocks;  this  is  the  only 
skillful  work  about  it,  they  have  got  to  be  laid  up  true. 
I  did  not  cement  inside  of  silo.  My  silage  spoiled  some 
around  the  outside.  This  is  due  to  lack  of  moisture  in  the 
silage  and  also  in  the  wall.  I  should  have  wet  the  silage 
and  wall  as  the  silo  was  filled,  but  was  not  fixed  to  do 
this. 

"My  silo  is  built  S1/^  feet  below  the  surface  and  in  the 
last  4  or  6  feet  of  silage  there  was  not  a  forkful  spoiled. 

"Two  men  can  make  90  to  100  blocks  a  day  after  they 
become  accustomed  to  it,  I  used  a  wood  mold  which  any 
carpenter  can  make  and  will  not  cost  over  $1  or  $1.50,  at 
most. 

"Now  as  to  the  doors.  I  used  2x6  plank  for  the  jambs 
and  set  them  flush  with  the  outside  of  the  wall;  as  the 
blocks  are  8  inches  thick  there  are  two  inches  on  inside 
for  door  to  set  in.  The  doors  are  ship-lap  double  with  a 
good  quality  of  tar  paper  in  between,  also  a  layer  of  tar 
paper  on  the  side  that  sets  against  the  jamb.  The  doors 
are  2  feet  square  and  every  4  feet.  Total  cost  about 
$225.00.  The  cost  for  labor  to  fill  it  I  estimate  at  $50.00." 

"This  is  a  cost  of  nearly  $2.00  per  ton  capacity,  but 
inasmuch  as  it  will  last  a  great  many  years  it  may  be  the 
cheapest  kind  in  the  long  run." 


CHAPTER  VII. 

SILAGE  CROPS. 

Indian  Corn. — Indian  corn  is,  as  has  already  been 
stated,  the  main  silage  crop  in  this  country,  and  is  likely 
to  always  remain  so.  Before  explaining  the  filling  of  the 
silo  and  the  making  of  silage,  it  will  be  well,  therefore, 
to  state  briefly  the  main  conditions  which  govern  the  pro- 
duction of  a  large  crop  of  corn  for  the  silo,  and  to  ex- 
amine which  varieties  of  corn  are  best  adapted  for  silage 
making. 

Soils  best  adapted  to  corn  culture  and  preparation  of 
land. — The  soils  best  adapted  to  the  culture  of  Indian  corn 
are  well-drained  medium  soils,  loams  or  sandy  loams,  in  a 
good  state  of  fertility.  Corn  will  give  best  results  coming 
after  clover.  The  preparation  of  the  land  for  growing 
corn  is  the  same  whether  ear  corn  or  forage  is  the  object. 
Fall  plowing  is  practiced  by  many  successful  corn  growers. 
The  seed  is  planted  on  carefully  prepared  ground  at  such 
a  time  as  convenient  and  advisable.  Other  things  being 
equal,  the  earlier  the  planting  the  better,  after  the  danger 
of  frost  is  ordinarily  over.  "The  early  crop  may  fail,  but 
the  late  crop  is  almost  sure  to  fail."  After  planting,  the 
soil  should  be  kept  pulverized  and  thoroughly  cultivated. 
Shallow  cultivation  will  ordinarily  give  better  results  than 
deep  cultivation,  as  the  former  method  suffices  to  destroy 
the  weeds  and  to  preserve  the  soil  moisture,  which  are  the 
essential  points  sought  in  cultivating  crops.  The  culti- 
vation should  be  no  more  frequent  than  is  necessary  for 
the  complete  eradication  of  weeds.  It  has  been  found  that 
the  yield  of  corn  may  be  decreased  by  too  frequent,  as 
well  as  by  insufficient  cultivation.  The  general  rule  may 
be  given  to  cultivate  as  often,  but  no  oftener,  than  is  nec- 
essary to  kill  the  weeds,  or  keep  the  soil  pulverized. 

133 


134  SILAGE   CROPS. 

The  cultivator  may  be  started  to  advantage  as  soon  as 
the  young  plants  break  through  the  surface,  and  the  soil 
kept  stirred  and  weeds  destroyed,  until  cultivation  is  no 
longer  practicable. 

Varieties  of  corn  for  the  silo. — The  best  corn  for  the 
silo,  in  any  locality,  is  that  variety  which  will -be  reason- 
ably sure  to  mature  before  frost,  and  which  produces  a 
large  amount  of  foliage  and  ears.  The  best  varieties  for 
the  New  England  States,  are  the  Learning,  Sanford,  and 
Flint  corn;  for  the  Middle  States,  Learning,  White  and 
Yellow  Dent;  .in  the  Central  and  Western  States,  the 
Learning,  Sanford,  Flint  and  White  Dent  will  be  apt  to 
give  the  best  results,  while  in  the  South,  the  Southern 
Horse  Tooth,  Mosby  Prolific,  and  other  large  dent  corns 
are  preferred. 

For  Canada,  Rennie  gives,  as  the  varieties  best  adapt- 
ed for  the  silo;  for  Northern  Ontario,  North  Dakota  and 
Compton's  Early  Flint;  for  Central  Ontario,  larger  and 
heavier-yielding  varieties  may  be  grown,  viz.,  Mammoth 
Cuban  and  Wisconsin  Earliest  White  Dent.  It  is  useless 
to  grow  a  variety  for  silage  which  will  not  be  in  a  firm 
dough  state  by  the  time  the  first  frosts  are  likely  to 
appear. 

In  the  early  stages  of  siloing  corn  in  this  country,  the 
effort  was  to  obtain  an  immense  yield  of  fodder  per  acre, 
no  matter  whether  the  corn  ripened  or  not.  Large  yields 
were  doubtless,  often  obtained  with  these  big  varieties, 
although  it  is  uncertain  that  the  actual  yields  ever  came 
up  to  the  claims  made.  Bailey's  Mammoth  Ensilage  Corn, 
"if  planted  upon  good  corn  land,  in  good  condition,  well 
matured,  with  proper  cultivation,"  was  guaranteed  to  pro- 
duce from  forty  to  seventy-five  tons  of  green  fodder  to 
the  acre,  "just  right  for  ensilage."  We  now  know  that 
the  immense  Southern  varieties  of  corn,  when  grown  to  an 
immature  stage,  as  must  necessarily  be  the  case  in  North- 
ern States,  may  contain  less  than  ten  per  cent,  of  dry 
matter,  the  rest  (more  than  nine-tenths  of  the  total 
weight)  being  made  up  of  water.  This  is  certainly  a  re- 


YIELDS  OF  SOUTHERN  AND  MAINE  CORN.       135 


markable  fact,  when  we  remember  that  skim-milk,  even 
when  obtained  by  the  separator  process  will  contain 
nearly  ten  per  cent,  of  solid  matter. 

In  speaking  of  corn  intended  to  be  cut  for  forage  at 
an  immature  stage,  Prof.  Robertson,  of  Canada,  said  at 
a  Wisconsin  Farmers'  Institute,  "Fodder  corn  sowed 
broadcast  does  not  meet  the  needs  of  milking  cows.  Such 
a  fodder  is  mainly  a  device  of  a  thoughtless  farmer  to 
fool  his  cows  into  believing  that  they  have  been  fed,  when 
they  have  only  been  filled  up."  The  same  applies  with 
equal  strength  to  the  use  of  large,  immature  Southern 
varieties  of  fodder,  or  for  the  silo,  in  Northern  States. 

In  comparative  variety  tests  with  corn  in  the  North, 
Southern  varieties  have  usually  been  found  to  furnish 
larger  quantities  per  acre  of  both  green  fodder  and  total 
dry  matter  in  the  fodder,  than  the  smaller  Northern  vari- 
eties. As  an  average  of  seven  culture  trials,  Professor 
Jordan  thus  obtained  the  following  results  at  the  Maine 
Station. 

COMPARATIVE   YIELDS   OF   SOUTHERN    CORN   AND  MAINE 
FIELD   CORN    GROWN    IN  -MAINE,    1888-1893. 


SOUTHERN  CORN. 

MAINE  FIELD  CORN. 

Green 
Fod- 
der. 

Dry 

Substance. 

Digestible 
Matter. 

Green 
Fod- 
der. 

Dry 

Substance. 

Digestible 
Matter. 

Per 

Cent. 

Lbs. 

Per 
Cent. 

Lbs. 

Per 
Cent. 

25.43 
13.55 

18.75 

Lbs. 

Per 
Cent. 

Lbs. 

Maximum 
Minimum 
Average.. 

46,340 
26,295 
34,761 

16.58 
12.30 
14.50 

6,237 
3,234 
5,036 

69 
61 
65 

3,923 

2,102 
3,251 

29,400 
14,212 
22,269 

7,064 
2,415 
4,224 

78 
70 
72 

4,94"5 
1,715 
3,076 

The  average  percentage  digestibility  of  the  dry  sub- 
stance is  65  per  cent,  for  the  Southern  corn,  and  72  per 
cent,  for  the  Maine  field  corn,  all  the  results  obtained  for 
the  former  varieties  being  lower  than  those  obtained  for 
the  latter.  While  the  general  result  for  the  five  years,  so 
far  as  the  yield  of  digestible  matter  is  concerned,  is 


136  SILAGE   CROPS. 

slightly  in  .favor  of  the  Southern  varieties,  the  fact  should 
not  be  lost  sight  of  that  an  average  of  G1^  tons  more  of 
material  has  annually  to  be  handled  over  several  times, 
in  case  of  these  varieties  of  corn,  in  order  to  gain  175 
pounds  more  of  digestible  matter  per  acre;  we  therefore, 
conclude  that  the  smaller,  less  watery,  variety  of  corn 
really  proved  the  more  profitable. 

At  other  Northern  stations  similar  results,  or  results 
more  favorable  to  the  Northern  varieties,  have  been  ob- 
tained, showing  that  the  modern  practice  of  growing  only 
such  corn  for  the  silo  as  will  mature  in  -the  particular 
locality  of  each  farmer,  is  borne  out  by  the  results  of 
careful  culture  tests. 

Time  of  cutting  corn  for  the  silo. — In  order  to  deter- 
mine at  what  stage  of  growth  corn  had  better  be  cut  when 
intended  for  the  silo,  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  the 
amount  of  food  materials  which  the  corn  plant  contains 
at  the  different  stages,  and  the  proportion  of  different  in- 
gredients at  each  stage.  From  careful  and  exhaustive 
studies  of  the  changes  occurring  in  the  composition  of  the 
corn  plant,  which  have  been  conducted  both  in  this  coun- 
try and  abroad,  we  know  that  as  corn  approaches  maturity 
the  nitrogenous  or  flesh-forming  substances  decrease  in 
proportion  to  the  other  components,  while  the  non-nitro- 
genous components,  especially  starch  (see  Glossary),  in- 
crease very  markedly;  this  increase  continues  until  the 
crop  is  nearly  mature,  so  long  as  the  leaves  are  still 
green.  Several  experiment  stations  have  made  investi- 
gations in  regard  .to  this  point.  As  an  illustration  we 
give  below  data  obtained  by  Prof.  Ladd,  in  an  investiga- 
tion in  which  fodder  corn  was  cut  and  analyzed  at  five 
different  stages  of  growth,  from  full  tasseling  to  maturity. 

The  data  given  below  show  how  rapidly  the  yield  of 
food  materials  increases  with  the  advancing  age  of  the, 
corn,  and  also  that  increase  during  the  later  stages  of 
growth  comes  largely  on  the  nitrogen-fed  extract  (starch, 
sugar,  etc.). 


TABLE  OF  CHEMICAL,  CHANGES.  137 

CHEMICAL   CHANGES   IN   THE    CORN    CROP. 


YIELD  PER    ACRE. 

Tas- 
seled, 
Jul     30 

Silked, 
Aug.  9 

Milk, 
Aug.  21 

Glazed, 
Sept.  7 

Ripe. 
Sept.  23 

Gross  Weight  

Pounds 

18045 

Pounds 

25745 

Pounds 

32600 

Pounds 

32295 

Pounds 

28460 

Water  in  the  Crop  

16426 

22666 

2-957 

25093 

20542 

Dry  Matter  

2619 

3078 

4643 

7202 

7918 

Ash  

1389 

2013 

2322 

3025 

3642 

Crude  Protein    . 

2398 

4368 

4787 

643  9 

6778 

Crude  Fiber  

5142 

8729 

1262  0 

27559 

1734  0 

Nitrogen-free  Extract 
(starch,  sugar,  etc.)  
Crude  Fat  

653.9 

722 

1399.3 
1678 

2441.3 

2289 

3239.8 
2600 

4827.6 
3143 

The  results  as  to  this  point  obtained  at  several  ex- 
periment stations  have  been  summarized  and  are  given 
in  the  following  table,  showing  the  increase  in  food  in- 
gredients during  the  stages  previous  to  maturity. 

We  thus  find  that  the  largest  amount  of  food  ma- 
terials in  the  corn  crop  is  not  obtained  until  the  corn  is 
well  ripened.  When  a  corn  plant  has  reached  its  total 
growth  in  height  it  has,  as  shown  by  results  given  in 
the  last  table,  attained  only  one-third  to  one-half  of  the 
weight  of  dry  matter  it  will  gain  if  left  to  maturity; 
hence  we  see  the  wisdom  of  postponing  cutting  the  corn 
for  the  silo,  as  in  general  for  forage  purposes  until  rather 
late  in  the  season,  when  it  can  be  done  without  danger 
of  frost. 

The  table  given  in  the  preceding,  and  our  discussion 
so  far,  have  taken  into  account  only  the  total,  and  not  the 
digestible  components  of  the  corn. 

It  has  been  found  through  careful  digestion  trials 
that  older  plants  are  somewhat  less  digestible  than  young 
plants.  There  is,  however,  no-  such  difference  in  the 
digestibility  of  the  total  dry  matter  or  its  components  as 
is  found  in  the  total  quantities  obtained  from  plants  at 
the  different  stages  of  growth,  and  the  total  yields  of 


138 


SILAGE   CROPS. 


digestible  matter  in  the  corn  will  therefore  be  greater 
at  maturity,  or  directly  before  this  time,  than  at  any 
earlier  stage  of  growth.  Hence  we  find  that  the  general 
practice  of  cutting  corn  for  the  silo  at  the  time  when  the 
corn  is  in  the  roasting-ear  stage,  when  the  kernels  have 
become  rather  firm,  and  are  dented  or  beginning  to  glaze, 
is  good  science  and  in  accord  with  our  best  knowledge  on 
the  subject. 

INCREASE   IN    FOOD   INGREDIENTS   FROM  TASSELING 
TO    MATURITY. 


EXPERIMENT 
STATION. 

Variety. 

Stage  of  Maturity. 

Gain  in  per  cent, 
between  first 
and  last  cutting-. 

First 
Cutting. 

Last 
Cutting. 

c 

b3 

OS 

Crude 
Protein 

0> 

T3  . 

II 

Carbo- 
Hyd's. 

Cornell,  N.  Y. 

Geneva,  N.  Y. 
New  Hamp. 
Pennsylvania 
Vermont 

Pride  of  the 
North 
Pride  of  the 
North 
King    Philip 
Av.of   4  var. 
Av.of  10  var. 
Av.of   2  var. 

Bloom 
Tasseled 

H 

(( 

Bloom 

Mature 
Nearly 
mature 
Mature 
Glazed 
Mature 

Glazed 
« 

150 

217 

389 
112 
155 
122 
204 

193 

90 

134 

183 
50 

50 
81 

129 

374 
335 

84 

169 
300 

462 
130 

265 

Average  of  all 

trials  

98 

230 

Other  reasons  why  cutting  at  a  late  period  of  growth 
is  preferable  in  siloing  corn  are  found  in  the  fact  that 
the  quality  of  the  silage  made  from  such  corn  is  much 
better  than  that  obtained  from  green  immature  corn,  and 
in  the  fact  that  the  sugar  is  most  abundant  in  the  corn 
plant  in  the  early  stages  of  ear  development,  but  the 
loss  of  non-nitrogenous  components  in  the  silo  falls  first 
of  all  on  the  sugar,  hence  it  is  the  best  policy  to  post- 
pone cutting  until  the  grain  is  full-sized  and  the  sugar  has 
largely  been  changed  to  starch. 

It  does  not  do,  however,  as  related  under  Uniformity 


METHODS  OF  PLANTING  CORN.  IS 

in  the  first  chapter  to  delay  the  cutting  so  long  that  the 
corn  plant  becomes  too  dry,  for  the  reason  stated.  Silage 
does  not  spoil  when  too  wet,  but  will  mold  if  too  dry. 
Experience  will  be  the  best  guide,  but  the  foregoing  pages 
should  enable  the  reader  to  form  the  right  idea  as  to 
time  for  filling,  which  to  secure  the  best  results,  is  nearly 
as  important  as  to  have  material  with  which  to  fill  the 
silo. 

Methods  of  Planting  Corn.  When  the  corn  crop  is 
intended  for  the  silo,  it  should  be  planted  somewhat  closer 
than  is  ordinarily  the  case  when  the  production  of  a  large 
crop  of  ear  corn  is  the  primary  object  sought.  Thin  seed- 
ing favors  the  development  of  well-developed,  strong 
plants,  but  not  the  production  of  a  large  amount  of  green 
forage.  The  number  of  plants  which  can  be  brought  to 
perfect  development  on  a  certain  piece  of  land  depends 
upon  the  state  of  fertility  of  the  land,  the  character  of 
the  season,  especially  whether  it  is  a  wet  or  dry  season, 
as  well  as  other  factors,  hence  no  absolute  rule  can  be 
given  as  to  the  best  thickness  of  planting  corn  for  the 
silo.  Numerous  experiments  conducted  in  different  parts 
of  the  country  have  shown,  however,  that  the  largest 
quantities  of  green  fodder  per  acre  can  ordinarily  be  ob- 
tained by  planting  the  corn  in  hills  three  or  even  two 
feet  apart,  or  in  drills  three  or  four  feet  apart,  with  plants 
six  or  eight  inches  apart  in  the  row. 

It  makes  little  if  any  difference,  so  far  as  the  yield 
obtained  is  concerned,  whether  the  corn  is  planted  in 
hills  or  in  drills,  when  the  land  is  kept  free  from  weeds 
in  both  cases,  but  it  facilitates  the  cutting  considerably 
to  plant  the  corn  in  drills  if  this  is  done  by  means  of  a 
corn  harvester  or  sled  cutter,  as  is  now  generally  the 
case.  The  yield  seems  more  dependent  on  the  number 
of  plants  grown  on  a  certain  area  of  land  than  on  the 
arrangement  of  planting  the  corn.  Hills  four  feet  each 
way,  with  four  stalks  to  the  hill,  will  thus  usually  give 
about  the  same  yield  as  hills  two  feet  apart,  with  stalks 
two  stalks  to  the  hill  or  drills  four  feet  apart  with  stalks 


140  SILAGE  CROPS. 

one  foot  apart  in  the  row,  etc.  The  question  of  planting 
corn  in  hills  or  in  drills  is  therefore  largely  one  of  greater 
or  less  labor  in  keeping  the  land  free  from  weeds  by  the 
two  methods.  This  will  depend  on  the  character  of  the 
land;  where  the  land  is  uneven,  and  check-rowing  of  the 
corn  difficult,  or  when  the  land  is  free  from  weeds,  drill 
planting  is  preferable,  while,  conversely,  on  fields  where 
this  can  be  done,  the  corn  may  more  easily  and  cheaply 
be  kept  free  from  weeds  if  planted  in  hills  and  check- 
rowed.  Since  one  of  the  advantages  of  the  silo  is  econom- 
ical production  and  preservation  of  a  good  quality  of  feed, 
the  economy  and  certainty  in  caring  for  the  growing 
crop  is  of  considerable  importance,  and  generally  planting 
in  hills  not  too  far  apart  will  be  found  to  facilitate  this, 
especially  during  wet  season. 

Corn  is  planted  in  hills  or  in  drills,  and  not  broadcast, 
whether  intended  for  the  silo,  or  for  production  of  ear 
corn;  when  sown  broadcast,  the  corn  cannot  be  kept  free 
from  weeds,  except  by  hand  labor.  More  seed  is  moreover 
required,  the  plants  shade  each  other  and  will  therefore 
not  reach  full  development,  from  lack  of  sufficient  sunshine 
and  moisture,  and  a  less  amount  of  available  food  con- 
stituents per  acre  will  be  produced. 

Other  Silage  Crops. 

Clover.  Clover  is  second  to  Indian,  corn  in  impor- 
tance as  a  silage  crop.  We  are  but  beginning  to  appreciate 
the  value  of  clover  in  modern  agriculture.  It  has  been 
shown  that  the  legumes,  the  family  to  which  clover 
belongs,  a/e  the  only  common  forage  plants  able  to  con- 
vert the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air  into  compounds  that  may 
be  utilized  for  the  nutrition  of  animals.  Clover  and  other 
legumes,  therefore,  draw  largely  on  the  air  for  the  most 
expensive  and  valuable  fertilizing  ingredient,  nitrogen,  and 
for  this  reason,  as  well  as  on  account  of  their  deep  roots, 
which  bring  fertilizing  elements  up  near  the  surface,  they 
enrich  the  land  upon  which  they  grow.  Being  a  more 


CLOVER  SILAGE.  141 

nitrogenous  food  than  corn  or  the  grasses,  clover  sup- 
plies a  good  deal  of  the  protein  compounds  required  by 
farm  animals  for  the  maintenance  of  their  bodies  and  for 
the  production  of  milk,  wool  or  meat.  By  feeding  clover, 
a  smaller  purchase  of  high-priced  concentrated  feed  stuffs, 
like  flour-mill  or  oil-mill  refuse  products,  is  therefore  ren- 
dered necessary  than  when  corn  is  fed;  on  account  of  its 
high  fertilizing  value  it  furthermore  enables  the  farmer 
feeding  it  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  his  land. 

When  properly  made,  clover  silage  is  an  ideal  feed 
for  nearly  all  kinds  of  stock.  Aside  from  its  higher  pro- 
tein contents  it  has  an  advantage  over  corn  silage  in 
point  of  lower  cost  of  production.  A  Wisconsin  dairy 
farmer  who  has  siloed  large  quantities  of  clover  estimates 
the  cost  of  one  ton  of  clover  silage  at  70  cents  to  $1, 
against  $1  to  $1.25  per  ton  of  corn  silage.  His  average 
yield  per  acre  of  green  clover  is  about  twelve  tons. 

Clover  silage  is  superior  to  clover  hay  on  account  of 
its  succulence  and  greater  palatability,  as  well  as  its 
higher  feeding  value.  The  last-mentioned  point  is  mainly 
due  to  the  fact  that  all  the  parts  of  the  clover  plant  are 
preserved  in  the  silo,  with  a  small  unavoidable  loss  in 
fermentation,  while  in  hay-making,  leaves  and  tender 
parts,  which  contain  about  two-thirds  of  the  protein  com- 
pounds, are  often  largely  lost  by  abrasion. 

Clover  may  easily  and  cheaply  be  placed  in  a  modern 
silo  and  preserved  in  a  perfect  condition.  The  failures 
reported  in  the  early  stages  of  silo  filling  were  largely 
due  to  the  faulty  construction  of  the  silo.  Clover  does  not 
pack  as  well  as  the  heavy  green  corn,  and  therefore,  re- 
quires to  be  cut  and  weighted,  or  calls  for  greater  depth 
in  the  silo,  in  order  that  the  air  may  be  sufficiently  ex- 
cluded. 

When  to  Cut  Clover  for  the  Silo. — The  yield  of  food 
materials  obtained  from  clover  at  different  stages  of 
growth  has  been  studied  by  a  number  of  scientists.  The 
following  table  giving  the  results  of  an  investigation  con- 
ducted by  Professor  Atwater  will  show  the  total  quan- 


142 


SILAGE  CROPS. 


titles  of  food  materials  secured  at  four  different  stages 
of  growth  of  red  clover. 

YIELD  PER  ACRE  OF  RED  CLOVER IN  POUNDS. 


STAGE  OF 
CUTTING. 

Green 
Weight 

Dry 
Matter 

Crude 
Protein 

Crude 
Fiber. 

N-free 
Extract 

Crude 
Fat. 

Ash. 

Just  before 
bloom  

3,570 

1,385 

198 

384 

664 

24 

115 

Full  bloom.  .  . 
Nearly  out 
of  bloom.  .  . 
Nearly  ripe  .  . 

2,650 

4,960 
3,910 

1,401 

1,750 
1,523 

189 

£30 
158 

390 

523 

484 

682 

837 
746 

33 

31 
36 

107 

129 
99 

Professor  Hunt  obtained  3,600  pounds  of  hay  per  acre 
from  clover  cut  in  full  bloom,  and  3,260  pounds  when 
three-fourths  of  the  heads  were  dead.  The  yields  of  dry 
matter  in  the  two  cases  were  2,526  pounds,  and  2,427 
pounds  respectively.  All  components,  except  crude  fibre 
(see  Glossary),  yielded  less  per  acre  in  the  second  cut- 
ting. Jordan  found  the  same  result,  comparing  the  yields 
and  composition  of  clover  cut  when  in  bloom,  some  heads 
dead,  and  heads  all  dead,  the  earliest  cutting  giving  the 
maximum  yield  of  dry  matter,  and  of  all  components  ex- 
cept crude  fibre. 

The  common  practice  of  farmers  is  to  cut  clover  for 
the  silo  when  in  full  bloom,  or  when  the  first  single  heads 
are  beginning  to  wilt,  that  is,  when  right  for  hay-making, 
and  we  notice  that  the  teachings  of  the  investigations 
made  are  in  conformity  with  this  practice. 

Many  farmers  are  increasing  the  value  of  their  corn 
silage  by  the  addition  of  clover.  A  load  of  clover  to  a 
load  or  two  loads  of  well-matured  corn  is  a  good  mixture. 

Alfalfa  (lucerne)  is  the  great,  coarse  forage  plant  of 
the  West,  and  during  late  years,  it  has  been  grown  con- 
siderably in  the  Northern  and  Central  States.  In  irrigated 
districts  it  will  yield  more  food  materials  per  acre  of  land 
than  perhaps  any  other  crop.  Four  to  five  cuttings,  each 
yielding  a  ton  to  a  ton  and  a  half  of  hay,  are  common  in 


COW  PEAS.  143 

these  regions,  and  the  yields  obtained  are  often  much 
higher.  In  humid  regions  three  cuttings  may  ordinarily 
be  obtained,  each  of  one  to  one  and  a  half  tons  of  hay. 

While  the  large  bulk  of  the  crop  is  cured  as  hay, 
alfalfa  is  also  of  considerable  importance  as  a  silage  crop 
in  dairy  sections  of  the  Western  States.  As  with  red 
clover,  reports  of  failure  in  siloing  alfalfa  are  on  record, 
but  first-class  alfalfa  silage  can  be  readily  made  in  deep, 
modern  silos,  when  the  crop  is  cut  when  in  full  bloom, 
and  the  plants  are  not  allowed  to  wilt  much  before  being 
run  through  a  cutter  and  siloed.  In  the  opinion  of  the 
dairymen  who  have  had  large  experience  in  siloing  alfalfa, 
sweet  alfalfa  silage  is  more  easily  made  than  good  al- 
falfa hay. 

What  has  been  said  in  regard  to  the  siloing  of  clover 
refers  to  alfalfa  as  well.  Alfalfa  silage  compares  favor- 
ably with  clover  silage,  both  in  chemical  composition  and 
in  feeding  value.  It  is  richer  in  flesh-forming  substances 
(protein)  than  clover  silage,  or  any  other  kind  of  silage, 
and  makes  a  most  valuable  feed  for  farm  animals,  espe- 
cially young  stock  and  dairy  cows. 

Cow  Peas  are  to  the  South  what  alfalfa  is  to  the 
West,  and  when  properly  handled  make  excellent  and 
most  valuable  silage.  The  cow  peas  are  sown  early  in 
the  season,  either  broadcast,  about  ll/2  bushels  to  the 
acre  and  turned  under  with  a  one-horse  turning  plow,  or 
drilled  in  rows  about  two  feet  apart.  They  are  cut  with 
a  mower  when  one-half  or  more  of  the  peas  on  the  vines 
are  fully  ripe,  and  are  immediately  raked  in  windrows 
and  hauled  to  the  silo,  where  they  are  run  through  a  feed 
cutter  and  cut  into  inch  lengths. 

Cow  pea  silage  is  greatly  relished  by  farm  animals 
after  they  once  become  accustomed  to  its  peculiar  flavor; 
farmers  who  have  had  considerable  practical  experience 
in  feeding  this  silage  are  of  the  opinion  that  cow-pea 
silage  has  no  equal  for  cows  and  sheep.  It  is  also  a  good 
hog  food,  and  for  all  these  animals  is  considered  greatly 
superior  to  pea-vine  hay.  In  feeding  experiments  at  a 


144  SILAGE  CROPS. 

Delaware  experiment  station  six  pounds  of  pea-vine  silage 
fully  took  the  place  of  one  pound  of  wheat  bran,  and  the 
product  of  one  acre  was  found  equivalent  to  two  tons  of 
bran. 

Instead  of  placing  only  cow  peas  in  the  silo,  alternate 
loads  of  cow  peas  and  corn  may  be  cut  and  filled  into  the 
silo,  which  will  make  a  very  satisfactory  mixed  silage.  A 
modification  of  this  practice  is  known  as  Getty's  method, 
In  which  corn  and  cow  peas  are  grown  in  alternate  rows, 
and  harvested  together  with  a  corn  harvester.  Corn  for 
this  combination  crop  is  preferably  a  large  Southern  vari- 
ety, drilled  in  rows  4  Ms  feet  apart,  with  stalks  9  to  16 
inches  apart  in  the  row.  Whippoorwill  peas  are  planted 
in  drills  close  to  the  rows  of  corn  when  this  is  about  six 
inches  high,  and  has  been  cultivated  once.  The  crop  is 
cut  when  the  corn  is  beginning  to  glaze,  and  when  three- 
fourths  of  the  pea  pods  are  ripe. 

The  corn  and  peas  are  tied  into  bundles  and  these 
run  through  the  silage  cutter.  The  cut  corn  and  peas  are 
carefully  leveled  off  and  trampled  down  in  the  silo,  and 
about  a  foot  cover  of  green  corn,  straw  or  cottonseed 
hulls  placed  on  top  of  the  siloed  mass.  As  in  case  of  all 
legumes,  it  is  safest  to  wet  the  cover  thoroughly  with  at 
least  two  gallons  of  water  per  square  foot  of  surface. 
This  will  seal  the  siloed  mass  thoroughly  and  will  pre- 
vent the  air  from  working  in  from  the  surface  and  spoil- 
Ing  considerable  of  the  silage  on  top. 

A  similar  effort  of  combining  several  feeds  for  the 
silo  is  found  in  the  so-called  Robertson  Ensilage  Mixture 
for  the  silo,  named  after  Prof.  Robertson  in  Canada.  This 
is  made  up  of  cut  Indian  corn,  sunflower  seed  heads,  and 
horse  beans  in  the  proportion  of  1  acre  corn,  y2  acre  horse 
beans,  and  ^4  acre  sunflowers.  The  principle  back  of  the 
practice  is  to  furnish  a  feed  richer  in  protein  substances 
than  corn,  and  thus  avoid  the  purchase  of  large  quantities 
of  expensive  protein  foods  like  bran,  oil  meal,  etc.  Feed- 
ing experiments  conducted  with  the  Robertson  Silage 
Mixture  for  cows  at  several  experiment  stations  have 


SOJA  BEANS   AND   SORGHUM.  145 

given  very  satisfactory  results,  and  have  shown  that  this 
silage  mixture  can  be  partly  substituted  for  the  grain 
ration  of  milch  cows  without  causing  loss  of  flesh  or 
lessening  the  production  of  milk  or  fat.  Fifteen  pounds 
of  this  silage  may  be  considered  equivalent  to  three  or 
four  pounds  of  grain  feeds.  The  practice  has  not,  how- 
ever, been  adopted  to  any  great  extent,  so  far  as  is  known, 
owing  to  the  difficulty  of  securing  a  good  quality  of  silage 
from  the  mixture  and  of  growing  the  horse  beans  success- 
fully. 

Soja  beans  (soy  beans)  are  another  valuable  silage 
crop.  According  to  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
the  soy  bean  is  highly  nutritive,  gives  a  heavy  yield,  and 
is  easily  cultivated.  The  vigorous  late  varieties  are  well 
adapted  for  silage.  The  crop  is  frequently  siloed  with 
corn  (2  parts  of  the  latter  to  1  of  the  former),  and  like 
other  legumes  it  improves  the  silage  by  tending  to  counter- 
act the  acid  reaction  of  corn  silage.  Of  other  Southern 
crops  that  are  used  for  silage  crops  may  be  mentioned 
Kaffir  corn,  chicken  corn  and  teosinte. 

Sorghum  is  sometimes  siloed  in  the  Western  and  Mid- 
dle States,  and  in  the  South.  It  is  sown  in  drills,  3*£  inches 
apart,  with  a  stalk  every  six  to  ten  inches  in  the  row,  and 
is  cut  when  the  kernels  are  in  the  dough  stage,  or  before. 
According  to  Shelton,  the  medium-growing  saccharine  and 
non-saccharine  sorghum  are  excellent  for  silage.  The 
sorghums  are  less  liable  to  be  damaged  by  insects  than 
corn,  and  they  remain  green  far  into  the  fall,  so  that  the 
work  of  filling  the  silo  may  be  carried  on  long  after  the 
corn  is  ripe  and  the  stalks  all  dried  up.  The  yield  per  acre 
of  green  sorghum  will  often  reach  20  tons,  or  one-half  as 
much  again  as  a  good  crop  of  corn.  These  considera- 
tions lead  Professor  Shelton  to  pronounce  sorghum  greatly 
superior  to  corn  as  silage  materials,  in  Kansas,  and  gen- 
erally throughout  the  Central  Western  States.  The  Ottawa 
(Can.)  Station  states  that  sorghum,  where  it  can  be  grown 
makes  an  excellent  crop  for  silage.  It  needs  to  be  cut, 
the  best  length,  as  in  the  case  of  corn  being  three-quarters 
of  an  inch  long,  or  less. 
10 


146  .SILAGE  CROPS. 

Sorghum,  like  corn,  contains  an  excess  of  carbohydrates 
and  is  somewhat  deficient  in  protein.  Its  value  is  in- 
creased therefore  by  the  addition  of  some  leguminous  crop 
such  as  cow  peas. 

Miscellaneous  Silage  Crops.  In  Northern  Europe, 
especially  in  England,  and  the  Scandinavian  countries, 
meadow  grass  and  after-math  (rowen)  are  usually  siloed; 
in  England,  at  the  present  time,  largely  in  stacks. 

In  districts  near  sugar  beet  factories,  where  sugar- 
beet  pulp  can  be  obtained  in  large  quantities  and  at  a  low 
cost,  stock  raisers  and  dairymen  have  a  most  valuable 
aid  in  preserving  the  pulp  in  the  silo.  As  the  pulp  is 
taken  from  the  factory  it  contains  about  90  per  cent,  of 
water;  it  packs  well  in  the  silo,  being  heavy,  finely  divided 
and  homogeneous,  and  a  more  shallow  silo  can  therefore 
be  safely  used  in  making  pulp  silage  than  is  required  in 
siloing  corn,  and  especially  clover  and  other  crops  of 
similar  character.  If  pulp  is  siloed  with  other  fodder 
crops,  it  is  preferably  placed  uppermost,  for  the  reason 
stated.  Beet  tops  and  pulp  are  often  siloed  in  alternate 
layer  in  pits  3  to  4  feet  deep,  and  covered  with  boards 
and  a  layer  of  dirt.  Beet  pulp  can  also  be  successfully 
placed  in  any  modern  deep  silo,  and  is  preferably  siloed 
in  such  silos  as  there  will  then  be  much  smaller  losses 
of  food  materials  than  in  case  of  shallow  silos  or  trenches 
in  the  field. 

Wheat,  rye  and  oats  have  been  siloed  for  summer  feed- 
ing with  some  success.  A  recent  correspondent  in  Hoard's 
Dairyman  tells  of  sowing  some  23  acres  of  rye  and  9  acres 
of  wheat  in  the  fall  of  1907  and  filling  one  silo  with  the 
rye  the  following  May  and  the  other  with  wheat  early  in 
June,  just  when  they  were  headed  out  but  before  the  grain 
was  actually  formed.  Several  acres  of  oats  and  peas  were 
put  into  a  third  silo  the  first  week  in  July.  In  cutting 
the  rye  and  wheat  it  was  necessary  to  take  the  precaution 
of  cutting  into  short  lengths  and  of  carefully  treading 
and  packing  it  in  the  silo,  in  order  to  insure  its  keeping 
qualities.  "It  has  kept  very  well  until  entirely  consumed 


M  MISCELLANEOUS   SILAGE  CROPS.  147 

by  the  cattle,  and  we  have  no  reason  to  suppose  that  it 
would  not  have  kept  if  we  had  not  used  it  up  when  we 
did.  But  our  experience  has  been  that  neither  the  rye  nor 
the  wheat  is  equal  to  corn  silage  for  feed.  In  fact  the 
cows  did  not  eat  the  rye  as  clean  as  they  should  have  done 
and  fell  off  somewhat  in  milk.  When  we  began  on  the 
wheat,  however,  they  did  better  and  we  believe  the  wheat 
to  be  better  material  for  silage  than  rye." 

Beet  pulp  silage  is  relatively  rich  in  protein  and  low 
in  ash  and  carbohydrates  (nutr.  ratio  1:5.7;  see  Glossary). 
Its  feeding  value  is  equal  to  about  half  that  of  corn 
silage. 

Occasional  mention  has  furthermore  been  made  in  the 
agricultural  literature  of  the  siloing  of  a  large  number  of 
plants,  or  products,  like  vetches,  small  grains  (cut  green), 
cabbage  leaves,  sugar  beets,  potatoes,  potato  leaves,  tur- 
nips, brewers'  grains,  apple  pomace,  refuse  from  corn  and 
pea  canning  factories;  twigs,  and  leaves,  and  hop  vines; 
even  fern  (brake),  thistles,  and  ordinary  weeds  have  been 
made  into  silage,  and  used  with  more  or  less  success  as 
foods  for  farm  animals. 

At  a  recent  convention  of  the  California  Dairy  Asso- 
ciation the  president,  Mr.  A.  P.  Martin,  stated  that  the  best 
silage  he  ever  made,  besides  corn,  was  made  of  weeds.  A 
piece  of  wheat  which  was  sowed  early,  was  drowned  out, 
and  the  field  came  up  with  tar  weed  and  sorrel.  This  was 
made  into  silage,  and  when  fed  to  milch  cows,  produced 
most  satisfactory  results. 

Alvord  says  that  a  silo  may  be  found  a  handy  and 
profitable  thing  to  have  on  a  farm  even  if  silage  crops  are 
not  regularly  raised  to  fill  it.  There  are  always  waste 
products,  green  or  half-dry,  with  coarse  materials  like 
swale  hay,  that  are  generally  used  for  compost  or  bed- 
ding, which  may  be  made  into  palatable  silage.  A  mix- 
ture, in  equal  parts,  of  rag-weed,  swamp  grass  or  swale- 
hay,  old  corn  stalks  or  straw,  and  second-crop  green 
clover,  nearly  three-fourths  of  which  would  otherwise  be 
almost  useless,  will  make  a  superior  silage,  surprising 
to  those  who  never  tried  it. 


148  SILAGE  CROPS. 

The  following  description  of  the  contents  filled  into 
a  New  York  silo,  which  was  used  as  a  sort  of  catch-all,  is 
given  by  the  same  writer:  1,  18  in.  deep  of  green  oats; 
2,  6  in.  of  red  clover;  3,  6  in.  of  Canada  field  peas;  4, 
3  in.  of  brewers'  grains;  5,  2  feet  of  whole  corn  plants, 
sowed  broadcast,  and  more  rag-weed  than  corn;  6,  5  in. 
of  second-crop  grass;  7,  12  in.  of  sorghum;  8,  a  lot  im- 
mature corn  cut  in  short  lengths.  The  silage  came  out 
pretty  acid,  but  made  good  forage,  and  was  all  eaten  up 
clean.  Damaged  crops  like  frosted  beets,  potatoes,  cab- 
bages, etc.;  rutabagas  which  showed  signs  of  decay,  and 
clover  that  could  not  be  made  into  hay  because  of  rain, 
may  all  be  placed  in  a  silo  and  thus  made  to  contribute 
to  the  food  supply  on  the  farm. 

A  peculiar  use  of  the  silo  is  reported  from  California, 
viz.,  for  rendering  foxtail  in  alfalfa  fields  harmless  in 
feeding  cattle.  The  foxtail  which  almost  takes  the  first 
crop  of  alfalfa  in  many  parts  of  California,  is  a  nutritious 
grass,  but  on  account  of  its  beards,  is  dangerous  to  feed. 
By  siloing  the  crop  the  grass  is  said,  to  be  rendered  per- 
fectly harmless;  the  alfalfa-foxtail  silage  thus  obtained 
is  eaten  by  stock  with  great  relish  and  without  any  in- 
jurious effects.  (Wall). 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

HOW  TO  MAKE  SILAGE. 

Filling  the  Silo. 

A.  Indian  Corn.  As  previously  stated,  corn  should 
be  left  in  the  field  before  cutting  until  it  has  passed 
through  the  dough  stage  i.  e.,  when  the  kernels  are  well 
dented  or  glazed,  in  case  of  flint  varieties.  Where  very 
large  siloa  are  filled  and  in  cases  of  extreme  dry  weather 
when  the  corn  is  fast  drying  up,  it  will  be  well  to  begin 
filling  the  silo  a  little  before  it  has  reached  this  stage, 
as  the  greater  portion  of  the  corn  would  otherwise  be 
apt  to  be  too  dry.  There  is,  however,  less  danger  in  this 
respect  now  than  formerly,  on  account  of  our  modern  deep 
silos,  and  because  we  have  found  that  water  applied 
directly  to  the  fodder  in  the  silo  acts  in  the  same  way  as 
water  in  the  fodder,  and  keeps  the  fermentations  in  the 
silo  in  check  and  in  the  right  track. 

Cutting  the  Corn  in  the  Field.  The  cutting  of  corn 
for  the  silo  is  usually  on  small  farms  done  by  hand  by 
means  of  a  corn  knife.  Many  farmers  have  been  using 
self-raking  and  binding  corn  harvesters  for  this  purpose, 
while  others  report  good  success  with  a  sled  or  platform 
cutter.  If  the  corn  stands  up  well,  and  is  not  of  a  very 
large  variety,  the  end  sought  may  be  reached  in  a  satis- 
factory manner  by  either  of  these  methods.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  much  of  the  corn  is  down,  hand  cutting  is  to 
be  preferred.  A  number  of  different  makes  of  corn  har- 
vesters and  corn  cutters  are  now  on  the  market;  and  it 
is  very  likely  that  hand-cutting  of  fodder  corn  will  be 
largely  done  away  with  in  years  to  come,  at  least  on  large 
farms,  indeed,  it  looks  as  If  the  day  of  the  corn  knife  was 
passing  away,  and  as  if  this  implement  will  soon  be  rele- 
gated to  obscurity  with  the  sickle  of  our  fathers'  time. 

149 


150  HOW  TO  MAKE  SILAGE. 

If  a  corn  harvester  is  used,  it  will  be  found  to  be  a 
great  advantage  to  have  the  bundles  made  what  seems 
rather  small.  It  will  take  a  little  more  twine,  but  the 
loaders,  the  haulers,  the  unloaders,  and  even  the  Silage 
Cutter  itself  will  handle  much  more  corn  in  a  day  if  the 
bundles  are  small  and  light,  and  it  will  be  found  to  be 
economy  to  see  that  this  is  done. 

A  platform  cutter,  which  was  used  with  great  suc- 
cess, is  described  by  a  veteran  Wisconsin  dairyman,  the 
late  Mr.  Charles  R.  Beach. 

"We  use  two  wagons,  with  platforms  built  upon  two 
timbers,  eighteen  feet  long,  suspended  beneath  the  axles. 
These  platforms  are  about  eighteen  inches  from  the  ground 
and  are  seven  feet  wide.  The  cutting  knife  is  fastened 
upon  a  small  removable  platform,  two  feet  by  about  three 
and  one-half  feet,  which  is  attached  to  the  side  of  the  large 
platform,  and  is  about  six  or  eight  inches  lower.  One  row 
is  cut  at  a  time,  the  knife  striking  the  corn  at  an  angle  of 
about  forty-five  degrees.  One  man  kneels  on  the  small 
platform  and  takes  the  corn  with  his  arm;  two  or  three 
men  stand  upon  the  wagon,  and  as  soon  as  he  has  gotten 
an  armful,  the  men,  each  in  turn,  take  it  from  him  and  pile 
it  on  the  wagon.  If  the  rows  are  long  enough  a  load  of 
one  and  one-half  to  two  tons  can  be  cut  and  loaded  on  in 
about  eight  or  ten  minutes.  The  small  platform  is  de- 
tached from  the  wagon,  the  load  driven  to  the  silo,  the 
platform  attached  to  the  other  wagon,  and  another  load 
is  cut  and  loaded.  None  of  the  corn  reaches  the  ground; 
no  bending  down  to  pick  up.  One  team  will  draw  men, 
cutter,  and  load,  and  I  do  not  now  well  see  how  the  method 
could  be  improved.  With  a  steam  engine,  a  large  cutter, 
two  teams  and  wagons,  and  ten  men  we  filled  our  silo 
22x24x18  feet  (190  tons),  fast,  in  less  than  two  days." 

Professor  Georgeson,  has  described  a  one-horse  sledge- 
cutter  which  has  given  better  satisfaction  than  any  fodder- 
cutter  tried  at  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station.  It  is 
provided  with  two  knives,  which  are  hinged  to  the  body 
of  the  sled,  and  can  be  folded  in  on  the  sled,  when  not  in 


CUTTING  AND  HAULING  THE  CORN. 


151 


use.  It  has  been  improved  and  made  easier  to  pull  by 
providing  it  with  four  low  and  broad  cast-iron  wheels. 
It  is  pulled  by  a  single  horse  and  cuts  two  rows  at  a  time. 
Two  men  stand  upon  the  cutter,  each  facing  a  row;  as  the 
corn  is  cut  they  gather  it  into  armfuls;  which  they  drop 
into  heaps  on  the  ground.  A  wagon  with  a  low,  broad 
rack  follows,  on  which  the  corn  is  loaded  and  hauled  to 
the  silo. 

Similar  corn  cutters  have  been  made  by  various  man- 
ufacturers of  late  years  and  have  proved  quite  satisfac- 
tory, although  they  require  more  hand  labor  than  the  corn 
harvesters  and  do  not  leave  the  corn  tied  up  and  in  as 
convenient  shape  for  loading  on  the  wagons  as  these  do. 
It  is  also  necessary  to  use  care  with  the  sledge  type  of 
corn  cutter,  as  numerous  cases  are  on  record  where  both 
men  and  horses  have  been  injured  by  getting  in  front  of 
the  knives,  which  project  from  the  sides. 


Fig.  27.    Low-down  rack  for  hauling  fodder  corn. 

A  low-down  rack  for  hauling  corn  from  the  field  is 
shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  27).  It  has 
been  used  for  some  years  past  at  the  Wisconsin  Station, 
and  is  a  great  convenience  in  handling  corn,  saving  both 
labor  and  time.  These  racks  not  only  dispense  with  a 
man  upon  the  wagon  when  loading,  but  they  materially 
lessen  the  labor  of  the  man  who  takes  the  corn  from  the 
ground,  for  it  is  only  the  top  of  the  load  which  needs  to 
be  raised  shoulder-high;  again,  when  it  comes  to  unload- 
ing, the  man  can  stand  on  the  floor  or  ground  and  simply 
draw  the  corn  toward  him  and  lay  it  upon  the  table  of  the 


152  HOW  TO  MAKE  SILAGE. 

cutter,  without  stooping  over  and  without  raising  the  corn 
up  to  again  throw  it  down.  A  plank  that  can  easily  be 
hitched  on  behind  the  truck  will  prove  convenient  for 
loading,  so  that  the  loader  can  pick  up  his  armful  and, 
walking  up  the  plank,  can  drop  it  without  much  exertion. 
If  wilted  fodder  corn  is  to  be  siloed  it  should  be 
shocked  in  the  field  to  protect  it  as  much  as  possible  from 
rain  before  hauling  it  to  the  cutter. 

Siloing  Corn,  "Ears  and  All." 

The  best  practice  in  putting  corn  into  the  silo,  is  to 
silo  the  corn  plant  "ears  and  all,"  without  previously  husk- 
ing it.  If  the  ear  corn  is  not  needed  for  hogs  and  horses, 
or  for  seed  purposes,  this  practice  is  in  the  line  of  econ- 
omy, as  it  saves  the  expense  of  husking,  cribbing,  shelling 
and  grinding  the  ear  corn.  The  possible  loss  of  food  ma- 
terials sustained  in  siloing  the  ear  corn  speaks  against 
the  practice,  but  this  is  very  small,  and  more  than  coun- 
terbalanced by  the  advantages  gained  by  this  method  of 
procedure.  In  proof  of  this  statement  we  will  refer  to  an 
extended  feeding  trial  with  milch  cows,  conducted  by  Pro- 
fessor Woll  at  the  Wisconsin  Station  in  1891. 

Corresponding  rows  of  a  large  corn  field  were  siloed, 
"ears  and  all,"  and  without  ears,  the  ears  belonging  to 
the  latter  lot  being  carefully  saved  and  air-dried.  The 
total  yield  of  silage  with  ears  in  it  (whole-corn  silage) 
was  59,495  pounds;  of  silage  without  ears  (stover  silage) 
34,496  pounds  and  of  ear  corn,  10,511  pounds.  The  dry 
matter  content  of  the  lots  obtained  by  the  two  methods 
of  treatment  was,  in  whole-corn  silage,  19,950  pounds; 
in  stover  silage  9,484  pounds,  and  in  ear  corn,  9,122 
pounds,  or  18,606  pounds  of  dry  matter  in  the  stover 
silage  and  ear  corn  combined.  This  shows  a  loss  of  1,344 
pounds  of  dry  matter,  or  nearly  7  per  cent.,  sustained  by 
handling  the  fodder  and  ear  corn  separately  instead  of 
siloing  the  corn  "ears  and  all." 

In  feeding  the  two  kinds  of  silage  against  each  other, 


THE  FILLING  PROCESS.  153 

adding  the  dry  ear  corn  to  the  stover  silage,  it  was  found 
that  seventeen  tons  of  whole-corn  silage  fed  to  sixteen 
cows  produced  somewhat  better  results  than  fourteen  tons 
of  stover  silage,  and  more  than  two  tons  of  dry  ear  corn, 
both  kinds  of  silage  having  been  supplemented  by  the 
same  quantities  of  hay  and  grain  feed.  The  yield  of  milk 
from  the  cows  was  4  per  cent,  higher  on  the  whole  corn 
silage  ration  than  on  the  stover  silage  ration,  and  the 
yield  of  fat  was  6.9  per  cent,  higher  on  the  same  ration. 
It  would  seem  then  that  the  cheapest  and  best  way  of  pre- 
serving the  corn  crop  for  feeding  purposes,  at  least  in  case 
of  milch  cows,  is  to  fill  it  directly  into  the  silo;  the  greater 
portion  of  the  corn  may  be  cut  and  siloed  when  the  corn 
is  in  the  roasting-ear  stage,  and  the  corn  plat  which  is  to 
furnish  ear  corn  may  be  left  in  the  field  until  the  corn 
is  fully  matured,  when  it  may  be  husked,  and  the  stalks 
and  leaves  may  be  filled  into  the  silo  on  top  of  the  corn 
siloed  "ears  and  all."  This  will  then  need  some  heavy 
weighting  or  one  or  two  applications  of  water  on  top  of 
the  corn,  to  insure  a  good  quality  of  silage  from  the  rather 
dry  stalks.  (See  page  152.) 

An  experiment  similar  to  the  preceding  one,  conducted 
at  the  Vermont  Station,  in  which  the  product  from  six 
acres  of  land  was  fed  to  dairy  cows,  gave  similar  results. 
We  are  justified  in  concluding,  therefore,  that  husking, 
shelling,  and  grinding  the  corn  (processes  that  may  cost 
more  than  a  quarter  of  the  market  value  of  the  meal)  are 
labor  and  expense  more  than  wasted,  since  the  cows  do 
better  on  the  corn  siloed  "ears  and  all"  than  on  that  siloed 
after  the  ears  were  picked  off  and  fed  ground  with  it. 

The  Filling  Process. 

The  corn,  having  been  hauled  from  the  field  to  the  silo, 
has  still  to  be  reduced  to  a  fine,  homogeneous  mass,  so 
that  it  will  pack  well  in  the  silo  and  will  be  convenient 
for  feeding. 

In  order  to  do  this,  the  whole  of  the  corn,  ears  and 
all,  may  be  run  through  an  "Ohio"  Ensilage  Cutter. 


154  HOW  TO  MAKE  SILAGE. 

The  corn  is  unloaded  on  the  table  of  the  cutter  and 
run  through  the  machine,  after  which  the  carrier  or 
blower  elevates  it  and  delivers  it  into  the  silo.  The  length 
of  cutting  practiced  differs  somewhat  with  different  farm- 
ers and  with  the  variety  of  corn  to  be  siloed.  Care  should 
be  taken  in  this  respect,  however,  for  the  length  of  cut 
has  much  to  do  with  the  quality  of  the  silage.  Experience 
has  demonstrated  that  the  half  inch  cut,  or  even  shorter, 
gives  most  satisfactory  results.  The  corn  will  pack  and 
settle  better  in  the  silo,  the  finer  it  is  cut,  thus  better  ex- 
cluding the  air  and  at  the  same  time  increasing  the  ca- 
pacity of  silo,  some  say  20  to  25  percent.  Cattle  will 
also  eat  the  larger  varieties  cleaner  if  cut  fine,  and  the 
majority  of  farmers  filling  silos  now  practice  such  cutting. 

The  cut  ensilage  should  be  directed  to  the  outer  edge 
of  the  silo  at  all  times,  thus  keeping  it  high  and  packing 
it  there,  letting  the  center  take  care  of  itself.  The  weight 
of  the  silage  packs  it  in  the  center. 

If  the  corn  is  siloed  "ears  and  all,"  it  is  necessary  to 
keep  a  man  or  boy  in  the  silo  while  it  is  being  filled,  to 
level  the  surface  and  tramp  down  the  sides  and  corners; 
if  left  to  itself,  the  heavier  pieces  of  ears  will  be  thrown 
farthest  away  and  the  light  leaves  and  tops  will  all  come 
nearest  the  discharge;  as  a  result  the  corn  will  not  settle 
evenly,  and  the  different  layers  of  silage  will  have  a  dif- 
ferent feeding  value.  Several  simple  devices,  such  as 
funnel-shaped  hoppers,  adjustable  board  suspended  from 
roof,  etc.,  will  suggest  themselves  for  receiving  the  silage 
from  the  carrier  and  directing  it  where  desired  in  the 
silo.  With  the  blower  machines,  the  new  flexible  silo  tube 
shown  in  the  back  of  this  book,  is  a  most  happy  solution 
of  an  otherwise  disagreeable  job.  At  the  same  time  it  in- 
sures perfectly  equal  distribution  of  the  cut  feed;  the 
leaves,  moisture  and  heavier  parts  being  always  uniformly 
mixed  as  cut, 


PROPER  DISTRIBUTION  OF  CUT  MATERIAL.     155 

The  Proper  Distribution  of  the  Cut  Material 
in  the  Silo. 

The  proper  distribution  of  the  cut  corn  after  it  has 
been  elevated  or  blown  into  the  silo  is  a  matter  which 
should  have  proper  attention  at  the  time  of  filling.  If 
the  cut  material  is  allowed  to  drop  all  in  one  place  and 
then  have  no  further  attention  the  constant  falling  of  the 
material  in  one  place  will  tend  to  make  that  portion  solid 
while  the  outside  will  not  be  so,  and  besides  the  pieces  of 
ears  and  heavier  portions  will  continually  roll  to  the  out- 
side. As  a  result  the  silage  cannot  settle  evenly,  and  good 
results  will  not  follow.  As  the  filling  progresses,  the  cut 
material  should  be  leveled  off  and  the  common  and  most 
successful  practice  is  to  keep  the  material  higher  at  the 
sides  than  at  the  center  and  do  all  the  tramping  at  and 
close  to  the  sides,  where  the  friction  of  the  walls  tends 
to  prevent  as  rapid  settling  as  takes  place  at  the  center. 
For  this  reason,  no  tramping,  or  at  least,  as  little  as 
possible,  should  be  done,  except  close  to  the  walls.  In 
modern  deep  silos,  the  weight  of  the  silage  accomplishes 
more  than  would  any  amount  of  tramping,  and  all  that  is 
necessary,  is  to  see  that  the  cut  material  is  rather  evenly 
distributed,  for  better  results  in  feeding,  and  to  assist  the 
settling  by  some  tramping  at  the  sides.  With  the  new  silo 
tube,  this  distribution  is  really  reduced  to  the  mere  guid- 
ing of  the  mouth  of  the  tube  by  hand. 

Size  of  Cutter  and  Power  Required. 

The  "Ohio"  Cutters  are  made  in  a  variety  of  sizes, 
suited  to  all  requirements. 

The  cutter  used  in  filling  the  silo  should  have  ample 
capacity  to  give  satisfaction  and  do  the  work  rapidly;  a 
rather  large  cutter  is  therefore  better  than  a  cutter  that 
is  barely  large  enough.  The  size  required  depends  on 
the  rapidity  with  which  it  is  desired  to  fill  the  silo  and; 
on  the  power  at  hand.  Where  a  steam  engine  is  avail- 
able it  is  the  cheapest  power  for  filling  a  large  silo,  as  the 


156  HOW  TO  MAKE  SILAGE. 

work  can  then  be  finished  in  a  few  days.  For  small  farms 
and  silos,  where  an  engine  is  not  to  be  had,  a  two  or 
three-horse  tread-power  may  be  used,  but  it  will  be  found 
that  the  work  of  filling  will  progress  much  more  slowly 
than  when  steam  power,  such  as  is  suitable  for  threshing, 
is  used.  The  filling  may  be  done  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
or  may  be  done  slowly,  and  no  harm  will  result  if,  for 
any  reason  the  work  be  interrupted  for  some  time.  More 
silage  can  be  put  into  a  silo  with  slow,  than  with  rapid 
filling.  If  the  farmer  owns  his  own  machine,  he  can,  of 
course,  fill  his  silo  and  then  refill  after  the  silage  hasi 
settled,  so  that  the  silo  will  be  nearly  full  after  all  settling 
has  taken  place. 

If,  however,  the  farmer  must  depend  on  hiring  an 
outfit,  he  will  wish  to  do  the  filling  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
as  a  matter  of  economy.  It  is,  therefore,  desirable  for 
the  farmer  to  own  his  own  machine,  and  that  being  the 
case,  a  smaller  machine  will  suffice;  whereas  if  the 
machine  be  hired  the  largest  possible  capacity  will  be 
desired. 

This  has  created  a  demand  for  various  sizes  of  cutters, 
and  to  meet  this  demand,  the  "Ohio"  Ensilage  Cutters 
are  made  in  six  sizes,  with  knives  eleven  to  twenty-two 
inches  long,  and  with  Metal  Bucket  Elevators,  or  Blower 
Elevators,  as  desired,  adaptable  to  any  height  of  silo. 
The  traveling  feed  table  (supplied  on  all  but  the  smallest 
size  "Ohio"  Ensilage  Cutter,  No.  11)  and  the  bull-dog  grip 
feed  rolls  are  valuable  features  and  practically  do  away 
with  the  labor  of  feeding  the  heavy  green  corn,  besides 
increasing  the  capacity  of  the  machines  about  one-third, 
on  account  of  its  being  so  much  easier  to  get  a  large 
amount  of  material  past  the  feed  rolls. 

The  Metal  Bucket  Elevator  is  the  older  style  of  ele- 
vator. It  delivers  the  cut  silage  corn  into  the  silo  through 
a  window  or  opening  at  the  top  and  must  be  longer  than 
the  silo  is  high  as  it  is  necessary  to  run  the  carrier  at 
somewhat  of  an  angle.  The  length  of  the  carrier  required 
may  be  obtained  by  adding  about  40  per  cent,  to  the  per- 


SIZE  OF  CUTTER  REQUIRED.  157 

pendicular  height  from  the  ground  to  the  window;  thus  for 
a  20  ft.  silo  a  28  ft.  carrier  is  required,  and  for  a  30  ft. 
silo,  about  42  ft.  of  carrier  will  be  necessary. 

The  metal  Bucket  Elevators  for  the  "Ohio"  Cutters 
are  made  both  straight  away  and  with  swivel  base,  which 
enables  the  operator  to  set  the  cutter  in  the  desired  posi- 
tion, and  as  the  swivel  base  gives  the  carrier  a  range  of 
adjustment  extending  over  nearly  a  half  circle,  the  carrier 
can  be  run  directly  to  the  window,  or  in  the  case  of  two 
silos  setting  side  by  side,  both  can  be  filled  with  one  set- 
ting of  the  cutter. 

The  No.  12  "Ohio"  Monarch  Cutter,  with  carrier  (the 
number  of  the  machine  indicates  the  length  of  knives  and 
width  of  throat),  has  a  capacity  of  8  to  12  tons  of  green 
corn  per  hour,  and  requires  4  to  6  horse-power  to  run  it  to 
full  capacity,  although  it  can  be  operated  successfully 
with  less  power,  by  feeding  in  proportion  to  the  power  at 
hand.  The  Blower  machines  require  more  power  to  oper- 
ate successfully  than  do  the  Carrier  machines.  The  14, 
17,  19  and  22  inch  "Ohio"  Cutters  have  correspondingly 
larger  capacities,  and  in  the  case  of  the  larger  sizes  the 
amount  that  can  be  cut  is  only  limited  by  the  amount  that 
can  be  conveniently  gotten  to  them.  The  largest  sizes 
can  be  run  by  an  ordinary  threshing  engine.  These  ma- 
chines have  been  on  the  market  for  upwards  of  twenty- 
five  years,  and  have  been  brought  to  a  wonderful  state 
of  perfection.  For  durability,  ease  and  reliability  of  oper- 
ation, capacity  and  general  utility,  they  are  doubtless  the 
most  practical  means  of  filling  the  silo. 

The  Nos.  14,  17  and  19  "Ohio"  Cutters  are  the  sizes 
mostly  in  use  by  farmers  and  dairymen,  and  the  travel- 
ing feed  table,  which  is  long  enough  to  receive  a  bundle 
of  corn,  is  a  most  valuable  feature,  and  has  become  almost 
universal  on  the  "Ohio"  machines  used  for  silo  filling.  It 
decreases  the  labor  of  feeding  and  makes  any  size  of  ma- 
chine about  equal  in  capacity  to  the  next  size  larger  with- 
out it. 

The  newer  and  more  modern  method  of  elevating  fod- 


158 


HOW  TO  MAKE  SILAGE. 


der  in  filling  silos,  is  the  use  of  the  Blower  Elevator  which 
blows  the  cut  fodder  into  the  silo  through  a  continuous 
pipe.  Blower  Elevators  (see  illustration  of  "Ohio"  Blower 
Cutter,  Fig.  29)  have  been  in  use  to  an  increasing  extent 
for  several  years,  and  today  there  is  absolutely  no  doubt 
as  to  their  superiority  for  elevating  the  material.  Where 
sufficient  power  is  available  there  is  no  difficulty  in  ele- 
vating the  cut  fodder  into  the  highest  silos. 

Although  the  Blower  Machines  require  somewhat  more 
power   than   the   old   style   Carrier,   they   have   numerous 


Fig.  29.  This  illustration  shows  a  No.  19  Monarch  Self -Feed  Blower  Cutter 
filling  three  forty-foot  silos,  500  tons  capacity,  at  the  Ingleside  Farms, 
Thorndale,  Chester  county,  Pa.  At  the  time  the  photograph  was  taken, 
this  machine  had  just  replaced  an  exploded  fly-wheel  cutter  which  nearly 
killed  one  of  the  workmen. 


BLOWER  OR  PNEUMATIC  ELEVATORS.    159 

advantages  over  the  latter,  and  the  majority  of  machines 
now  being  sold  are  equipped  with  Blowers.  We  mention 
below  some  of  the  features  that  have  served  to  bring  the 
"Ohio"  Monarch  Blowers  to  the  notice  and  favor  of  farm- 
ers and  dairymen  so  rapidly. 

The  Blower  Machine  is  quickly  set  up,  taken  down  or 
moved,  as  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  remove  the  pipe, 
(which  is  in  sections  of  various  lengths  from  four  to 
ten  feet  as  desired),  which  requires  but  a  few  moments. 
This  operation  requires  but  little  time  as  compared  with 
that  occupied  in  setting  up  or  taking  apart  the  chain 
elevator. 

The  Blower  Machine  is  clean  in  operation,  placing 
all  of  the  corn  in  the  cilo  and  there  is  no  litter  around 
the  machine  when  the  filling  is  finished. 

The  action  of  the  fan  paddles  is  such  that  the  corn 
is  made  much  finer,  and  it  therefore  packs  closer  in  the 
silo,  thus  enabling  more  fodder  to  be  stored  in  the  silo; 
the  corn  is  all  knocked  off  of  the  pieces  of  cobs  and  dis- 
tributed through  the  cut  fodder  better,  and  the  pieces  of 
the  heavy  butts  and  joints  are  also  split  and  knocked  to 
pieces,  all  of  which  reduces  the  silage  to  a  fine  condition 
so  that  it  is  eaten  up  cleaner  by  the  stock, 

The  fan  or  blower  device  is  also  likely  to  be  more 
durable  than  the  chain  elevator. 

Many  have  been  skeptical  as  to  the  ability  of  the  Blower 
to  elevate  the  material  as  rapidly  as  the  "Ohio"  Machines 
cut  it.  This  proposition,  however,  has  been  proven  en- 
tirely feasible  and  successful,  and  there  positively  need 
be  no  fear  on  this  point  if  the  following  points  are  kept 
in  mind. 

The  machine  must  be  run  at  the  proper  speed  as 
recommended  by  the  manufacturers.  A  fan  can  only 
create  a  sufficient  blast  by  running  fast  enough  to  force 
the  air  through  the  pipe  at  the'  rate  of  nine  or  ten  thou- 
sand feet  per  minute.  Green  corn  is  heavy  stuff  and  re- 
quires a  strong  current  of  air  to  carry  it  through  30  or 
40  feet  of  pipe  at  the  rate  of  10  to  30  tons  per  hour.  It 


160  HOW  TO  MAKE  SILAGE. 

will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  unless  proper  speed  be  main- 
tained there  will  be  no  elevation  of  the  material  what- 
ever. If  the  power  at  hand  is  not  sufficient  to  maintain 
full  speed  when  the  cutters  are  fed  to  full  capacity,  all  that 
is  necessary  is  to  feed  the  machine  accordingly,  in  other 
words,  to  cut  down  the  capacity  to  the  point  where  full 
speed  can  be  maintained,  as  is  necessary  with  other  kinds 
of  machinery,  such  as  threshing  machines,  grinding  mills, 
etc. 

In  setting  a  Blower  Machine  it  is  necessary  to  have 
the  pipe  as  nearly  perpendicular  as  possible,  so  that  the 
current  of  air  within  the  pipe  will  lift  the  material.  This 
is  especially  true  where  the  pipe  is  long,  say  20  feet  or 
more,  because  the  green  fodder  being  heavy  will  settle 
down  onto  the  lower  side  of  the  pipe,  if  this  has  much 
slant,  and  the  wind  blast  will  pass  over  the  fodder,  thus 
allowing  it  to  lodge,  whereas  if  the  pipe  be  perpendicular, 
or  nearly  so,  no  stoppage  will  occur.  It  is  also  necessary 
to  see  that  full  speed  is  attained  before  beginning  to 
feed  the  machine,  and  also  to  stop  the  feeding  while  the 
machine  is  in  full  motion  so  that  the  Blower  will  have 
an  opportunity  to  clear  itself  before  shutting  off  the  power. 

There  must  be  ample  vent  in  the  silo  to  prevent  back 
pressure,  as  the  tremendous  volume  of  air  forced  into  the 
silo  with  the  cut  fodder  must  have  some  means  of  escape. 

If  these  few  points  are  kept  in  mind,  there  can  be  no 
possible  doubt  as  to  the  successful  operation  of  the  Blower 
Elevator;  and,  as  previously  stated,  there  is  absolutely  no 
doubt  as  to  their  superiority  for  elevating  silage.  Scores 
of  "Ohio"  Blower  Machines  are  in  successful  use  in  all 
parts  of  the  country. 

(N.  B.  At  the  end  of  this  volume  will  be  found  illus- 
trations and  descriptions  of  several  sizes  and  styles  of 
"Ohio"  Cutters,  which  the  reader  can  refer  to,  in  addition 
to  the  illustrations  given  here.) 

Danger  from  Carbonic-Acid  Poisoning  in  Silos. — As 
soon  as  the  corn  in  the  silo  begins  to  heat,  carbonic-acid 


COVERING  THE  SILOED  FODDER.  161 

gas  is  evolved,  and  if  the  silo  is  shut  up  tight  the  gas  will 
gradually  accumulate  directly  above  the  fodder,  since  it 
is  heavier  than  air  and  does  not  mix  with  it  under  the  con- 
ditions given.  If  a  man  or  an  animal  goes  down  into  this 
atmosphere,  there  is  great  danger  of  asphyxiation,  as  is 
the  case  under  similar  conditions  in  a  deep  cistern  or  well. 
Poisoning  cases  from  this  cause  have  occurred  in  filling 
silos  where  the  filling  has  been  interrupted  for  one  or  more 
days,  and  men  have  then  gone  into  the  silo  to  tramp  down 
the  cut  corn.  If  the  doors  above  the  siloed  mass  are  left 
open  when  the  filling  is  stopped,  and  the  silo  thus  venti- 
lated, carbonic  acid  poisoning  cannot  take  place,  since  the 
gas  will  then  slowly  diffuse  into  the  air.  Carbonic  acid 
being  without  odor  or  color,  to  all  appearances  like  ordi- 
nary air,  it  cannot  be  directly  observed,  but  may  be  readily 
detected  by  means  of  a  lighted  lantern  or  candle.  If  the 
light  goes  out  when  lowered  into  the  silo  there  is  an 
accumulation  of  carbonic  acid  in  it,  and  a  person  should 
open  feed  doors  and  fan  the  air  in  the  silo  before  going 
down  into  it. 

After  the  silage  is  made  and  the  temperature  in  the 
silo  has  gone  down  considerably,  there  is  no  further  evo- 
lution of  carbonic  acid,  and  therefore  no  danger  in  enter- 
ing the  silo  even  if  this  has  been  shut  up  tight.  The 
maximum  evolution  of  carbonic  acid,  and  consequently  the 
danger  of  carbonic-acid  poisoning  comes  during  or  directly 
after  the  filling  of  the  silo. 

Covering  the  Siloed  Fodder. 

Many  devices  for  covering  the  siloed  fodder  have  been 
recommended  and  tried,  with  varying  success.  The  orig- 
inal method-  was  to  put  boards  on  top  of  the  fodder,  and 
to  weight  them  heavily  by  means  of  a  foot  layer  of  dirt 
or  sand,  or  with  stone.  The  weighting  having  later  on 
been  done  away  with,  lighter  material,  as  straw,  hay, 
sawdust,  etc.,  was  substituted  for  the  stone  o^'.sand.' 
Building  paper  was  often  placed  over  the  fodder,  and 
boards  on  top  of  the  paper.  There  is  no  special  advan- 

11  •     -     •*  ' 


162  HOW  TO  MAKE  SILAGE. 

tage  derived  from  the  use  of  building-paper,  and  it  is  now 
never  used.  Many  farmers  run  some  corn  stalks,  or  green 
husked  fodder,  through  the  cutter  after  the  fodder  is  all 
in.  In  the  South,  cotton-seed  hulls  are  easily  obtained, 
and  form  a  cheap  and  most  efficient  cover. 

None  of  these  materials  or  any  other  recommended  for 
the  purpose  can  perfectly  preserve  the  uppermost  layer  of 
silage,  some  four  to  six  inches  of  the  top  layer  being 
usually  spoilt.  Occasionally  this  spoilt  silage  may  not  be 
so  bad  but  that  cattle  or  hogs  will  eat  it  up  nearly  clean, 
but  it  is  at  best  very  poor  food,  and  should  not  be  used  by 
any  farmer  who  cares  for  the  quality  of  his  products.  The 
wet  or  green  materials  are  better  for  cover  than  dry  sub- 
stances, since  they  prevent  evaporation  of  water  from  the 
top  layer;  when  this  is  dry  air  will  be  admitted  to  the  fod- 
der below,  thus  making  it  possible  for  putrefactive  bacteria 
and  molds  to  continue  the  destructive  work  begun  by  the 
fermentation  bacteria,  and  causing  more  of  the  silage  to 
spoil. 

Use  of  Water  in  Filling  Silos. — During  late  years  the 
practice  of  applying  water  to  the  fodder  in  the  silo  has 
been  followed  in  a  large  number  of  cases.  The  surface 
is  tramped  thoroughly  and  a  considerable  amount  of  water 
added.  In  applying  the  method  at  the  Wisconsin  Station, 
Prof.  King,  a  few  days  after  the  completion  of  the  filling 
of  the  silo,  added  water  to  the  fodder  corn  at  the  rate  of 
about  ten  pounds  per  square  foot  of  surface,  repeating  the 
same  process  about  ten  days  afterwards.  By  this  method 
a  sticky,  almost  impervious  layer  of  rotten  silage,  a  couple 
of  inches  thick,  will  form  on  the  top,  which  will  prevent 
evaporation  of  water  from  the  corn  below,  and  will  pre- 
serve all  but  a  few  inches  at  the  top.  The  method  can  be 
recommended  in  cases  where  the  corn  or  clover  goes  into 
the  silo  in  a  rather  dry  condition,  on  account  of  drouth 
or  extreme  hot  weather,  so  as  not  to  pack  sufficiently  by 
its  own  weight.  While  weighting  of  the  siloed  fodder  has 
long  since  been  done  away  with,  it  may  still  prove  ad- 
vantageous to  resort  to  it  where  very  dry  fodder  is  siloed, 


CLOVER  SILAGE.  163 

br  in  case  of  shallow  silos.  Under  ordinary  conditions 
neither  weighting  nor  application  of  water  should  be  nec- 
essary. 

There  is  only  one  way  in  which  all  of  the  silage  can 
be  preserved  intact,  viz.,  by  beginning  to  feed  the  silage 
within  a  few  days  after  the  silo  has  been  filled.  This 
method  is  now  practiced  by  many  farmers,  especially 
dairymen,  who  in  this  manner  supplement  scant  fall 
pastures. 

By  beginning  to  feed  at  once  from  the  silo,  the  silo- 
ing system  is  brought  to  perfection,  provided  the  silo 
structure  is  air-tight,  and  constructed  so  as  to  admit  of 
no  unnecessary  losses  of  nutrients.  Under  these  con- 
ditions there  is  a  very  considerable  saving  of  food  ma- 
terials over  silage  made  in  poorly  constructed  silos,  or 
over  field-cured  shocked  fodder  corn,  as  we  have  al- 
ready seen. 

Clover  Silage. 

Green  clover  may  be  siloed  whole  or  cut,  but  the 
later  method  is  to  be  recommended.  The  clover  should 
not  be  left  to  wilt  between  cutting  and  siloing,  and  the 
silo  should  be  filled  rapidly,  so  as  to  cause  no  unneces- 
sary losses  by  fermentation. 

The  different  species  of  clover  will  prove  satisfactory 
silo  crops;  ordinary  red  or  medium  clover  is  most  used 
in  Northwestern  States,  along  with  mammoth  clover; 
the  latter  matures  later  than  medium  or  red  clover,  and 
may  therefore  be  siloed  later  than  these.  Alfalfa,  or 
lucerne,  is,  as  previously  stated,  often  siloed  in  the  West. 
Under  the  conditions  present  there  it  will  generally  pro- 
duce much  larger  yields  than  corn,  and,  preserved  in 
a  silo,  will  furnish  a  large  supply  of  most  valuable  feed. 
Prof.  Neale  and  others  recommended  the  use  of  scarlet 
clover  for  summer  silage,  for  Delaware  and  States  under 
similar  climatic  conditions. 

Says  a  Canadian  dairy  farmer:  "If  we  were  asked 
for  our  opinion  as  to  what  will  most  help  the  average 


164  HOW  TO  MAKE  SILAGE. 

dairy  farmer,  I  think  we  would  reply:  Knowledge  of  a 
balanced  ration,  the  Babcock  test,  and  a  summer  silo; 
then  varying  the  feed  of  individual  animals  according 
to  capacity;  as  shown  by  scales  and  close  observation." 

Clover  for  Summer  Silage. 

By  filling  the  clover  into  the  silo  at  midsummer,  or  be- 
fore, space  is  utilized  that  would  otherwise  be  empty; 
the  silage  will,  furthermore,  be  available  for  feeding  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  summer  and  during  the  fall,  when 
the  pastures  are  apt  to  run  short.  This  makes  it  pos- 
sible to  keep  a  larger  number  of  stock  on  the  farm  than 
can  be  the  case  if  pastures  alone  are  to  be  relied  upon,  and 
thus  greatly  facilitates  intensive  farming.  Now  that  stave 
silos  of  any  size  may  be  easily  and  cheaply  put  up,  it 
will  be  found  very  convenient  at  least  on  dairy  farms, 
to  keep  a  small  separate  silo  for  making  clover  silage 
that  may  be  fed  out  during  the  summer,  or  at  any  time 
simultaneously  with  the  feeding  of  corn"  silage.  This 
extra  silo  may  also  be  used  for  the  siloing  of  odd  lots  of 
forage  that  may  happen  to  be  available  (see  page  60). 
It  is  a  good  plan  in  siloing  clover  or  other  comparatively 
light  crops  in  rather  small  silos,  to  put  a  layer  of  corn 
on  top  that  will  weight  down  the  mass  below,  and  secure 
a  more  thorough  packing  and  thereby  also  a  better  quality 
of  silage. 

In  several  instances  where  there  has  still  been  a 
supply  of  clover  silage  in  the  silo,  green  corn  has  been 
filled  in  on  top  of  the  clover,  and  the  latter  has  been 
sealed  and  thus  preserved  for  a  number  of  years.  Corn 
silage  once  settled  and  "sealed,"  will  also  keep  perhaps 
indefinitely  when  left  undisturbed  in  the  silo,  without 
deteriorating  appreciably  in  feeding  value  or  palatability. 

Prof.  Cottrell  writing  for  Kansas  farmers,  says: 
"Silage  will  keep  as  long  as  the  silo  is  not  opened,  and 
has  been  kept  in  good  condition  for  seven  years.  This 
is  a  special  advantage  for  Kansas  dairymen,  as  In  years 
e?  heavy  crops  the  surplus  can  be  stored  in  silos  for 


FREEZING  OF  SILAGE.  165 

years   of  drouth,  making  all   years  good  crop  years   for 
silo  dairymen." 

Freezing  of  Silage. 

Freezing  of  silage  has  sometimes  been  a  source  of 
annoyance  and  loss  to  farmers  in  Northern  States,  and 
in  the  future,  with  the  progress  of  the  stave  silo,  we 
shall  most  likely  hear  more  about  frozen  silage  than  we 
have  in  the  past.  As  stated  in  the  discussion  of  the  stave 
silo,  however,  the  freezing  of  silage  must  be  considered 
an  inconvenience  rather  than  a  positive  detriment;  when 
the  silage  is  thawed  out  it  is  eaten  with  the  same  relish 
by  stock  as  is  silage  that  has  never  been  frozen,  and 
apparently  with  equally  good  results.  If  frozen  silage 
is  not  fed  out  directly  after  thawed  it  will  spoil  and  soon 
become  unfit  to  be  used  for  cattle  food;  thawed  silage 
will  spoil  much  sooner  than  ordinary  silage  that  has  not 
been  frozen  and  thawed  out.  There  is  no  evidence  that 
silage  which  has  been  frozen  and  slowly  thawed  out,  is 
less  palatable  or  nutritious  than  silage  of  the  same  kind 
which  has  been  kept  free  from  frost. 

"Freezing  of  silage,"  says  Iowa  State  College  Bulletin 
No.  100,  "is  due  to  loss  of  heat;  first,  through  the  silo 
wall;  and  second,  to  the  air  in  contact  with  the  feeding 
surface. 

"It  may  be  impartially  said  that,  as  far  as  the  pre- 
vention of  freezing  is  concerned,  the  stave,  stone,  single 
wall  brick  and  concrete  silos  are  of  about  equal  merit. 

"The  second  cause  of  freezing  mentioned,  that  is,  the 
loss  of  heat  from  the  silage  surface,  is  too  often  the  cause 
of  unnecessary  freezing.  If  air  above  the  silage  is  confined, 
no  serious  loss  of  heat  can  possibly  take  place.  When  the 
top  of  the  silo  is  open  and  a  free  circulation  of  air  permit- 
ted, it  is  almost  impossible  to  prevent  the  surface  from 
freezing  in  severe  weather.  A  personal  investigation  of 
silos  in  cold  weather  proved  conclusively  that  those  pro- 
vided with  a  tight  roof  did  not  contain  nearly  as  much 
frozen  silage  as  those  left  open." 


166  HOW  TO  MAKE  SILAGE. 

The  difficulty  of  the  freezing  of  the  silage  may  be 
avoided  by  checking  the  ventilation  in  the  silo  and  by 
leaving  the  door  to  the  silo  carefully  closed  in  severe 
weather.  If  the  top  layer  of  silage  freezes  some  of  the 
warm  silage  may  be  mixed  with  the  frozen  silage  an 
hour  or  two  before  feeding  time,  and  all  the  silage  will 
then  be  found  in  good  condition  when  fed  out.  A  layer 
of  straw  may  be  kept  as  a  cover  over  the  silage;  this 
will  prevent  it  from  freezing,  and  is  easily  cleared  off 
when  silage  is  to  be  taken  out. 

Silage  From  Frosted  Corn. 

Experiments  were  conducted  at  the  Vermont  Station 
in  October,  1906,  with  immature  corn,  mature  corn  not 
frosted,  and  mature  corn  frosted  hard  or  frozen  and  the 
leaves  whitened.  No  ill  results  were  noticeable  in  the 
butter  product.  It  was  found  that  "the  effect  of  frosting 
corn,  and  still  more  of  freezing  it,  appears  very  slightly 
to  have  been  to  depress  its  feeding  value  when  made  into 
silage.  "  The  testimony  seemed  in  favor  of  running  frost 
risks  in  order  to  gain  a  greater  maturity,  rather  than  to 
silo  the  immature  product. 

Steamed  Silage. 

While  fermentation  in  silage  causes  a  small  unavoid- 
able loss,  it  develops  flavors  and  softens  the  plant  tissue. 
Excessive  fermentation  causes  high  acid.  Steam  has  been 
used  with  much  success  to  check  it  in  such  cases,  says 
Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  316.  It  is  piped  at  the  bottom  and 
middle  of  the  silo  until  the  whole  mass  is  hot. 

Steaming  seems  beneficial  and  silage  so  treated  is  con- 
sidered much  better  than  that  which  is  not  steamed.  Stall 
fed  animals  have  eaten  from  50  to  75  Ibs.  of  silage  per  day. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

HOW  TO  FEED  SILAGE. 

Silage  is  eaten  with  a  relish  by  all  kinds  of  farm  ani- 
mals, dairy  and  beef  cattle,  horses,  mules,  sheep,  goats, 
swine,  and  even  poultry.  It  should  never  be  fed  as  sole 
roughage  to  any  one  of  these  .classes  of  stock,  however, 
but  always  in  connection  with  some  dry  roughage.  The 
nearer  maturity  the  corn  is  when  cut  for  the  silo  the  more 
silage  may  safely  be  fed  at  a  time,  but  it  is  always  well 
to  avoid  feeding  it  excessively. 

The  silo  should  always  be  emptied  from  the  top  in 
horizontal  layers,  and  the  surface  kept  level,  so  as  to 
expose  as  little  of  the  silage  as  possible  to  the  air.  It 
should  be  fed  out  sufficiently  rapidly  to  avoid  spoiling 
of  the  silage;  in  ordinary  Northern  winter  weather  a 
layer  a  couple  of  inches  deep  should  be  fed  off  daily. 

Silage  for  Milch  Cows. 

Silage  is  par  excellence  a  cow  feed,  says  Prof.  Woll 
in  his  Book  on  Silage.  Since  the  introduction  of  the 
silo  in  this  country,  the  dairymen,  more  than  any  other 
class  of  farmers,  have  been  among  the  most  enthusiastic 
siloists,  and  up  to  the  present  time  a  larger  number  of 
silos  are  found  in  dairy  districts  than  in  any  other  re- 
gions where  animal  husbandry  is  a  prominent  industry. 
As  with  other  farm  animals,  cows  fed  silage  should  re- 
ceive other  roughage  in  the  shape  of  corn  stalks,  hay, 
etc.  The  quantities  of  silage  fed  should  not  exceed  forty, 
or  at  outside,  fifty  pounds  per  day  per  head.  It  is 
possible  that  a  maximum  allowance  of  only  25  or  30 
pounds  per  head  daily  is.  to  be  preferred  where  the 
keeping  quality  of  the  milk  is  an  important  considera- 
tion, especially  if  the  silage  was  made  from  somewhat 

167 


168  HOW  TO  FEED  SILAGE. 

immature  corn.  The  silage  may  be  given  in  one  or  two 
feeds  daily,  and,  in  case  of  cows  in  milk,  always  after 
milking,  and  not  before  or  during  same,  as  the  peculiar 
silage  odor  may,  in  the  latter  case,  in  our  experience 
reappear  in  the  milk.  (See  below.) 

Silage  exerts  a  very  beneficial  influence  on  the  secre- 
tion of  milk.  Where  winter  dairying  is  practiced,  cows 
will  usually  drop  considerably  in  milk  toward  spring,  if 
fed  on  dry  feed,  causing  a  loss  of  milk  through  the 
whole  remaining  portion  of  the  lactation  period.  If  silage 
is  fed  there  will  be  no  such  marked  decrease  in  the  flow 
of  milk  before  turning  out  to  grass,  and  the  cows  will 
be  able  to  keep  up  well  in  milk  until  late  in  summer, 


Fig.  30.    Silage  Truck. 

or  early  in  the  fall,  when  they  are  dried  up  prior  to 
calving.  Silage  has  a  similar  effect  on  the  milk  secre- 
tion as  green  fodder  or  pasture,  and  if  made  from  well- 
matured  corn,  is  more  like  these  feeds  than  any  other 
feed  the  farmer  can  produce. 

The  feeding  of  silage  to  milch  cows  has  sometimes 
been  objected  to  when  the  milk  was  intended  for  the 
manufacture  of  certain  kinds  of  cheese,  or  of  condensed 
milk,  and  there  are  instances  where  such  factories  have 
enjoined  their  patrons  from  feeding  silage  to  their  cows. 
When  the  latter  is  properly  prepared  and  properly  fed, 


SILAGE  FOR  "CERTIFIED  MILK."  169 

there  can  be  no  foundation  whatever  for  this  injunction; 
it  has  been  repeatedly  demonstrated  that  Swiss  cheese 
of  superior  quality  can  be  made  from  the  milk  of  silage- 
fed  cows,  and  condensing  factories  among  whose  pat- 
rons silage  is  fed  have  been  able  to  manufacture  a 
superior  product.  The  quality  of  the  silage  made  during 
the  first  dozen  years  of  silo  experience  in  this  country 
was  very  poor,  being  sour  and  often  spoilt  in  large 
quantities,  and,  what  may  have  been  still  more  important, 
it  was  sometimes  fed  in  an  injudicious  manner,  c 
being  made  to  subsist  on  this  feed  as  sole  roughage. 
Under  these  conditions  it  is  only  natural  that  the  quality 
of  the  milk  should  be  impaired,  and  that  manufacturers 
preferred  to  entirely  prohibit  the  use  of  it  rather  than 
to  teach  their  patrons  to  follow  proper  methods  in  the 
making  and  feeding  of  silage.  There  is  an  abundance  of 
evidence  at  hand  showing  that  good  silage  fed  in  moder- 
ate quantities  will  produce  an  excellent  quality  of  both 
butter  and  cheese.  According  to  the  testimony  of  but- 
ter experts,  silage  not  only  does  not  injure  the  flavor  of 
butter,  but  better-flavored  butter  is  produced  by  judicious 
silage  feeding  than  can  be  made  from  dry  feed. 

Silage"  in  the  production  of  "certified  milk." — In  an- 
swer to  a  question  raised  whether  there  is  any  objection 
made  to  the  milk  when  the  cows  are  fed  silage,  Mr.  H.  B. 
Gurler,  the  well-known  Illinois  dairyman,  whose  certified 
milk  sent  to  the  Paris  Exposition  in  1900,  kept  sweet 
for  one  month  without  having  any  preservatives  added 
to  it,  and  was  awarded  a  gold  medal,  gave  the  following 
information:  "No,  there  is  not.  I  have  had  persons  who 
knew  I  was  feeding  silage  imagine  they  could  taste  it.  I 
caught  one  of  the  leading  Chicago  doctors  a  while  ago. 
He  imagined  that  he  could  taste  silage  in  the  milk,  and 
I  was  not  feeding  it  at  all.  When  I  first  went  into  the 
business  I  did  not  feed  any  silage  to  the  cows  from 
which  the  certified  milk  was  produced.  I  knew  it  was 
all  right  for  butter  making,  as  I  had  made  butter  from 
the  milk  of  cows  fed  with  silage,  and  sent  it  to  New 


170  HOW  TO  FEED  SILAGE. 

York  in  competition  with  butter  made  from  dry  food,  and 
it  proved  to  be  the  finer  butter  of  the  two.  The  first 
winter  I  had  samples  sent  down  to  my  family  in  De 
Kalb  from  the  stable  where  we  fed  silage  and  from  the 
stable  where  we  were  making  the  certified  milk  for  Chi- 
cago, and  in  which  we  fed  no  silage.  I  presume  I  made 
one  hundred  comparative  tests  that  winter  of  the  milk 
from  these  two  stables.  My  wife  and  daughter  could 
not  tell  the  difference  between  the  two  samples.  In  the 
large  majority  of  cases  they  would  select  the  milk  from 
the  cows  fed  silage  as  the  sweeter  milk." 

It  will  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the  general  use  of 
silage  among  progressive  dairymen  in  our  country,  to 
state  that  of  one  hundred  farmers  furnishing  the  feed 
rations  fed  to  their  dairy  cows,  in  an  investigation  of  this 
subject  conducted  by  Prof.  Woll  in  1894,  sixty-four  were 
feeding  silage  to  their  stock,  this  feed  being  used  a 
larger  number  of  times  than  any  other  single  cattle  food, 
wheat  bran  only  excepted. 

An  interesting  experiment  as  to  the  effect  of  silage 
on  milk  was  recently  conducted, by  the  Illinois  Station, 
where  a  herd  of  40  cows  was  divided,  one  lot  being  fed 
40  Ibs.  of  silage  a  day,  the  other  clover  hay  and  grain. 
Samples  of  milk  were  submitted  to  372  persons  for  an 
opinion.  Sixty  per  cent,  preferred  the  silage-fed  milk,  29 
per  cent,  non-silage-fed  milk,  while  11  per  cent,  had  no 
choice.  They  were  able  to  distinguish  between  the  two 
kinds,  but  found  nothing  objectionable  about  either.  The 
summary  of  the  test  was  that  when  silage  imparts  a  bad 
or  disagreeable  flavor  to  milk  produced  from  it,  almost 
invariably  the  cause  is  that  the  silage  has  not  been  fed 
properly,  or  that  spoiled  silage  has  been  used. 

It  has  been  contended  that  the  acetic  acid  in  ensilage 
has  a  tendency  to  make  milk  sour  more  quickly.  A  user 
of  ensilage  for  14  years,  took  a  gallon  of  milk  from  a  cow 
fed  ensilage  for  42  days  and  a  gallon  from  another  that 
had  received  no  ensilage  and  set  them  side  by  side  in  a 
room  having  a  temperature  of  40  degrees.  Both  gallons 
of  milk  began  to  sour  at  the  same  time. 


SILAGE  RATIONS  FOR  MILCH  COWS.  171 

The  combination  in  which  corn  silage  will  be  used 
in  feeding  milch  cows  will  depend  a  good  deal  on  local 
conditions;  it  may  be  said  in  general  that  it  should  be 
supplemented  by  a  fair  proportion  of  nitrogenous  feeds 
like  clover  hay,  wheat  bran,  ground  oats,  linseed  meal, 
gluten  feed,  cotton-seed  meal,  etc.  As  it  may  be  of 
some  help  to  our  readers  a  number  of  balanced  rations 
or  such  as  are  near  enough  balanced  to  produce  good 
results  at  the  pail,  are  presented  below. 

Silage  Rations  for  Milch  Cows. 

No.  1.    Corn  silage,   35  Ibs.;    hay,  8  Ibs.;    wheat  bran,  4 

Ibs.;  ground  oats,  3  Ibs.;  oil  meal,  2  Ibs. 
No.  2.    Corn   silage,   50   Ibs.;    corn   stalks,   10   Ibs.;    corn 

meal,  2  Ibs.;  wheat  bran,  4  Ibs.;  malt  sprouts,  3  Ibs.; 

oil  meal,  1  Ib. 
No.  3.    Corn   silage,   40   Ibs.;    clover  and  timothy   mixed, 

10  Ibs.;  wheat  shorts,  3  Ibs.;  gluten  feed,  3  Ibs.;  corn 

and  cob  meal,  3  Ibs. 
No.  4.    Corn    silage,    20    Ibs.;    corn    stalks,    10   Ibs.;    hay, 

4  Ibs.;  wheat  bran,  4  Ibs.;  gluten  meal,  3  Ibs.;  ground 

oats,  3  Ibs. 
No.  '5.    Corn  silage,  40  Ibs.;  clover  hay,  10  Ibs.;  oat  feed, 

4  Ibs.;  corn  meal,  3  Ibs.;  gluten  feed,  3  Ibs. 

No.  6.     Corn  silage,  45  Ibs.;  corn  stalks,  5  Ibs.;  oat  straw, 

5  Ibs.;    dried    brewers'   grains,    4    Ibs.;    wheat   shorts, 

4  Ibs. 

No.  7.     Corn   silage,   35   Ibs.;    hay,   10   Ibs.;    corn  meal,   3 

Ibs.;  wheat  bran,  4  Ibs.;  oats,  3  Ibs. 
No.  8.    Corn   silage,   40   Ibs.;    corn  stover,   8   Ibs.;    wheat 

bran,  4  Ibs.;   gluten  meal,  2  Ibs.;  oil  meal,  2  Ibs. 
No.  9.    Corn  silage,  20  Ibs.;    clover  and  timothy  hay,  15 

Ibs.;   corn  meal,  3  Ibs.;   ground  oats,  3  Ibs.;   oil  meal, 

2  Ibs.;  cotton  seed  meal,  1  Ib. 
No.  10.    Clover  silage,  25  Ibs.;   corn  stover,  10  Ibs.;  hay, 

5  Ibs.;  wheat  shorts,  2  Ibs.;  oat  feed,  4  Ibs.;  corn  meal, 
2  Ibs. 


172  HOW  TO  FEED  SILAGE. 

No.  11.    Clover  silage,  30  Ibs.;   dry  fodder  corn,  10  Ibs.; 

oat   straw,   4  Ibs.;    wheat  bran,  4  Ibs.;    malt  sprouts, 

2. Ibs.;   oil  meal,  2  Ibs. 
No.  12.    Clover  silage,  40  Ibs.;  hay,  10  Ibs.;  roots,  20  Ibs.; 

corn  meal,  4  Ibs.;  ground  oats,  4  Ibs. 

The  preceding  rations  are  only  intended  as  approxi- 
mate guides  in  feeding  dairy  cows.  Every  dairy  farmer 
knows  that  there  are  hardly  two  cows  that  will  act  in 
exactly  the  same  manner  and  will  need  exactly  the  same 
amount  of  feed.  It  is  then  important  to  adapt  the  quan- 
tities and  kinds  of  feed  given  to  the  special  needs  of  the 
different  cows;  one  cow  will  fatten  on  corn  meal,  where 
another  will  be  able  to  eat  and  make  good  use  of  two 
or  three  quarts  of  it.  In  the  same  way  some  cows  will 
eat  more  roughage  than  others  and  do  equally  well  on  it 
as  those  that  get  more  of  the  food  in  the  form  of  more 
concentrated  and  highly  digestible  feeding  stuffs.  The 
only  safe  rule  to  go  by  is  to  feed  according  to  the 
different  needs  of  the  cows;  to  study  each  cow  and  find 
out  how  much  food  she  can  take  care  of  without  laying 
on  flesh,  and  how  she  responds  to  the  feeding  of  foods 
of  different  character,  like  wheat  bran  and  corn  meal, 
for  instance.  The  specimen  rations  given  in  the  preced- 
ing can,  therefore,  only  be  used  to  show  the  average 
amount  of  common  feeds  which  a  good  dairy  cow  can 
take  in  and  give  proper  returns  for. 

The  popularity  of  the  silo  with  owners  of  dairy  cattle 
has  increased  very  greatly,  says  Prof.  Plumb.  Few  owners 
of  stock  of  this  class,  who  have  properly-built  silos,  and 
well-preserved  silage,  would  discard  silage  as  an  adjunct 
to  feeding.  Silage  certainly  promotes  milk  flow.  One 
great  argument  in  favor  of  its  use  lies  in  the  cheapness 
of  production  per  ton,  and  the  ability  to  store  and  secure 
a  palatable,  nutritious  food  in  weather  conditions  that 
would  seriously  injure  hay  or  dry  fodder. 

There  is  one  important  point  that  owners  of  milk 
cattle  should  bear  in  mind,  and  that  is  when  the  silo  Is 
first  opened  only  a  small  feed  should  be  given.  In  chang- 


SILAGE   FOR  BEEF   CATTLE.  173 

ing  from  grass  or  dry  feed  to  silage,  if  a  regular  full 
ration  is  given,  the  silage  will  perhaps  slightly  affect 
the  taste  of  the  milk  for  a  few  milkings,  and  if  the  change 
is  from  dry  feed  it  may  cause  too  great  activity  of  the 
bowels. 

Silage  for  Beef  Cattle. 

Silage  may  be  fed  with  advantage  to  beef  cattle,  in 
moderate  quantities,  up  to  about  forty  pounds  a  day. 
The  health  of  the  animals  and  the  quality  of  the  beef 
produced  on  moderate  silage  feeding,  leave  nothing  to 
be  wished  for.  If  the  silage  is  made  from  immature 
corn  care  must  be  taken  not  to  feed  too  large  quan- 
tities at  the  start,  and  to  feed  carefully,  so  as  not  to  make 
the  animals  scour.  Prof.  Henry  says  in  regard  to  the 
value  of  silage  for  fattening  steers:  "As  with  roots, 
silage  makes  the  carcass  watery  and  soft  to  the  touch. 
Some  have  considered  this  a  disadvantage,  but  is  it  not 
a  desirable  condition  in  the  fattening  steer?  Corn  and 
roughage  produce  a  hard  dry  carcass,  and  corn  burns  out 
the  digestive  tract  in  the  shortest  possible  time.  With 
silage  and  roots,  digestion  certainly  must  be  more  nearly 
normal,  and  its  profitable  action  longer  continued.  The 
tissues  of  the  body  are  juicy,  and  the  whole  system  must 
be  in  just  that  condition  which  permits  rapid  fattening. 
While  believing  in  a  large  use  of  silage  in  the  preliminary 
stages,  and  its  continuance  during  most  of  the  fattening 
period,  I  would  recommend  that  gradually  more  dry  feed 
be  substituted  as  the  period  advances,  in  order  that  the 
flesh  may  become  more  solid.  Used  in  this  way,  I  believe 
silage  will  become  an  important  aid  in  steer  feeding  in 
many  sections  of  the  country.  Results  from  Canada,  Wis- 
consin, and  Texas  experiment  stations  show  the  broad 
adoption  of  this  food  for  stock  feeding  purposes. 

Young  stock  may  be  fed  half  as  much  silage  as  full 
grown  ones,  with  the  same  restrictions  and  precautions 
as  given  for  steers.  Experience  obtained  at  the  Kansas 
Station  suggests  that  corn  silage  is  not  a  fit  food  for 


174  HOW  TO  FEED  SILAGE. 

breeding  bulls,  unless  fed  a  few  pounds  only  as  a  relish; 
fed  heavily  on  silage,  bulls  are  said  to  lose  virility  and 
become  slow  and  uncertain  breeders. 

Fuller  information  on  this  subject  is  given  in  Chapter 
III  of  this  book,  entitled,  ''The  Use  of  Silage  in  Beef  Pro- 
duction." 

Silage  for  Horses. 

When  fed  in  small  quantities,  not  to  exceed  fifteen 
pounds  a  day,  silage  is  a  good  food  for  horses.  It 
should  be  fed  twice  a  day,  a  light  feed  being  given  at 
first  and  gradually  increased  as  the  animals  become 
accustomed  to  the  food.  Some  farmers  feed  it  mixed 
with  cut  straw,  two-thirds  of  straw  and  one-third  of 
silage,  and  feed  all  the  horses  will  eat  of  this  mixed  feed. 
Some  horses  object  to  silage  at  first  on  account  of  its 
peculiar  odor,  but  by  sprinkling  some  oats  or  bran  on 
top  of  the  silage  and  feeding  only  very  small  amounts 
to  begin  with,  they  soon  learn  to  eat  and  relish  it.  Other 
horses  take  it  willingly  from  the  beginning.  Horses 
not  working  may  be  fed  larger  quantities  than  work 
horses,  but  in  neither  case  should  the  silage  form  more 
than  a  portion  of  the  coarse  feed  fed  to  the  horses. 
Silage-fed  horses  will  look  well  and  come  out  in  the 
spring  in  better  condition  than  when  fed  almost  any  other 
food. 

Professor  Cook  says  in  regard  to  silage  as  a  horse 
food:  "It  has  been  suggested  by  even  men  of  high 
scientific  attainments  that  silage  is  pre-eminently  the 
food  for  cattle  and  not  for  other  farm  stock.  This  is 
certainly  a  mistake.  If  we  raise  fall  colts,  which  I  find 
very  profitable,  then  silage  is  just  what  we  need,  and 
will  enable  us  to  produce  colts  as  excellent  as  though 
dropped  in  the  spring.  This  gives  us  our  brood  mares 
in  first-class  trim  for  the  hard  summer's  work.  I  find 
silage  just  as  good  for  young  colts  and  other  horses." 

An  extensive  Michigan  farmer  and  horse  breeder 
gives  his  experience  in  regard  to  silage  for  horses  as 


SILAGE  FOR  HORSES.  175 

follows:  "Last  year  we  had  nearly  two  hundred  horses, 
including  Clydesdales,  standard-bred  trotters,  and  Shet- 
land .ponies.  They  were  wintered  entirely  upon  straw 
and  corn  silage,  and  this  in  face  of  the  fact  that  I  had 
read  a  long  article  in  a  prominent  horse  journal  caution- 
ing farmers  from  the  use  of  silage,  and  citing  instances 
where  many  animals  had  died,  and  brood  mares  had 
aborted  from  the  liberal  use  of  corn  silage. 

"Desiring  to  test  'the  matter  to  the  fullest  extent, 
our  stallions  and  brood  mares,  as  well  as  all  the  young 
stock,  we  fed  two  full  rations  of  silage  daily,  and  one 
liberal  ration  of  wheat  or  oat  straw.  The  result  with 
our  brood  mares  was  most  phenomenal,  for  we  now 
have  to  represent  every  mare  that  was  in  foal  on  the 
farm,  a  weanling,  strong  and  vigorous,  and  apparently 
right  in  every  way,  with  only  one  exception,  where  the 
colt  was  lost  by  accident.  Of  course  there  may  have  been 
something  in  the  season  more  favorable  than  usual,  but 
this  was  the  first  year  in  my  experience  .when  every  colt 
dropped  on  the  farm  was  saved." 

The  following  experience  as  to  the  value  of  silage 
as  a  food  for  horses  and  other  farm  animals  comes  from 
the  Ohio  Station:  "Our  silo  was  planned  and  filled  with 
special  reference  to  our  dairy  stock,  but  after  opening 
the  silo  we  decided  to  try  feeding  the  silage  to  our  horses, 
calves  and  hogs.  The  result  was  eminently  satisfactory. 
We  did  not  find  a  cow,  calf,  horse,  colt,  or  hog  that  re- 
fused to  eat,  or  that  did  not  eat  it  with  apparent  relish, 
not  only  for  a  few  days,  but  for  full  two  months.  The 
horses  were  given  one  feed  of  twenty  pounds  each  per 
day  in  place  of  the  usual  amount  of  hay,  for  the  period 
above  named,  and  it  was  certainly  a  benefit.  Their  appe- 
tites were  sharpened,  and  the  healthfulness  of  the  food 
was  further  manifest  in  the  new  coat  of  hair  which  came 
with  the  usual  spring  shedding.  The  coat  was  glossy, 
the  skin  loose,  and  the  general  appearance  was  that  of 
horses  running  upon  pasture." 

Doctor  Bailey  states  that  silage  has  as  good  an  effect 


176  HOW  TO  FEED  SILAGE. 

on  work  and  driving  horses  as  an  occasional  feed  of 
carrots  or  other  roots,  and  Rew  informs  us  that  there 
is  a  demand  for  silage  in  London  and  other  English 
cities,  especially  for  omnibus,  cab,  and  tram  horses.  Ac- 
cording to  the  testimony  of  Mr.  H.  J.  Elwes,  the  cart 
horses  fed  silage  "looked  in  better  condition  and  brighter 
in  their  coats  than  usual  at  this  time  of  the  year." 

From  experiments  conducted  at  Virginia  Station,  Prof. 
Nourse  concluded  that  "it  would  appear  that  silage 
would  make  a  good  roughage  for  horses,  when  used  in 
connection  with  hay  or  stover  or  grain,  but  that  these 
animals  should  become  accustomed  to  the  food  by  de- 
grees, and  that  this  is  as  important  as  when  changing 
from  old  to  new  corn,  or  from  hay  to  grass." 

What  has  been  said  about  silage  as  a  food  for  horses 
will  most  likely  apply  equally  well  to  mules,  although 
only  very  limited  experience  has  so  far  been  gained  with 
silage  for  this  class  of  farm  animals. 

Silage  for  Sheep. 

Silage  is  looked  upon  with  great  favor  among  sheep 
men,  says  Prof.  Woll  in  his  Book  on  Silage;  sheep  do 
well  on  it,  and  silage-fed  ewes  drop  their  lambs  in  the 
spring  without  trouble,  the  lambs  being  strong  and  vigor- 
ous. Silage  containing  a  good  deal  of  corn  is  not  well 
adapted  for  breeding  stock,  as  it  is  too  fattening;  for 
fattening  stock,  on  the  other  hand,  much  corn  in  the 
silage  is  an  advantage.  Sheep  may  be  fed  a  couple  of 
pounds  of  silage  a  day  and  not  to  exceed  five  or  six  pounds 
per  head.  Prof.  Cook  reports  as  follows  in  regard  to  the 
value  of  silage  for  sheep:  "I  have  fed  ensilage  liberally 
to  sheep  for  three  winters  and  am  remarkably  pleased 
with  the  results.  I  make  ensilage  half  the  daily  ration, 
the  other  half  being  corn  stalks  or  timothy  hay,  with 
bran  or  oats.  The  sheep  do  exceedingly  well.  Formerly 
I  was  much  troubled  to  raise  lambs  from  grade  Merino 
ewes.  Of  late  this  trouble  has  almost  ceased.  .  Last 
spring  I  hardly  lost  a  lamb.  While  ensilage  may  not  be 


SILAGE  FOR  SHEEP.  177 

the  entire  cause  of  the  change,  I  believe  it  is  the  main 
cause.  It  is  positively  proved  that  ensilage  is  a  most 
valuable  food  material,  when  properly  fed,  for  all  our 
domestic  animals." 

Mr.  J.  S.  Wloodward,  a  well-known  New  York  farmer 
and  Farmers'  Institute  Worker,  who  has  made  a  specialty 
of  early-lamb  raising,  says  in  an  address  before  the  New 
York  Agricultural  Society,  regarding  silage  as  a  feed  for 
lambs:  "In  order  to  be  successful  in  raising  fine  lambs 
it  is  imperative  that  the  ewes  and  lambs  both  should  have 
plenty  of  succulent  food.  Nothing  can  supply  the  de- 
ficiency. For  this  purpose  roots  of  almost  any  kind  are 
good.  Turnips,  rutabagas,  mangolds  are  all  good.  Corn 
silage  is  excellent.  Could  I  have  my  choice  I  would  pre- 
fer both  silage  and  roots.  If  I  were  depending  on  silage 
alone  for  succulent  food  I  would  give  four  pounds  per 
hundred  pounds  live  weight  of  sheep,  all  at  one  feed, 
at  the  forenoon  feed;  but  when  feeding  both  silage  and 
roots  I  would  feed  silage  in  the  morning  and  roots  in  the 
afternoon." 

Mr.  J.  M.  Turner  of  Michigan  says  concerning  silage 
for  sheep:  "Of  late  years  we  have  annually  put  up 
3,200  tons  of  corn  ensilage,  and  this  has  been  the  prin- 
cipal ration  of  all  the  live  stock  at  Springdale  Farm,  our 
Shropshire  sheep  having  been  maintained  on  a  ration 
of  ensilage  night  and  morning,  coupled  with  a  small 
ration  of  clover  hay  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  This  we 
found  to  fully  meet  the  requirements  of  our  flock  until 
after  lambing,  from  which  time  forward  we  of  course 
added  liberal  rations  of  wheat  bran,  oats,  and  old-process 
linseed  meal  to  the  ewes,  with  a  view  of  increasing  their 
flow  of  milk  and  bringing  forward  the  lambs  in  the  most 
vigorous  possible  conditions.  Our  flock-master  was  some- 
what anxious  until  after  the  lambs  dropped,  but  now 
that  he  saved  196  lambs  from  122  ewes,  his  face  is 
wreathed  in  smiles,  and  he  gives  the  ensilage  system  the 
strongest  endorsement."  Mr.  Turner  states  that,  after 
becoming  accustomed  to  the  silage,  his  horses,  cattle,  and 
12 


178  HOW  TO  FEED  SILAGE. 

sheep  would  all  push  their  noses  down  through  the  hay, 
if  there  was  silage  at  the  bottom  of  the  manger,  and 
little  or  no  hay  would  be  eaten  until  the  silage  was  first 
taken. 

O.  C.  Gregg,  superintendent  of  farmers'  institutes  for 
Minnesota,  has  been  conducting  some  experiments  on 
feeding  ensilage  to  sheep.  He  gives  the  result  in  one  of 
our  American  exchanges  as  follows: 

"We  made  preparations  to  use  ensilage  in  the  feeding 
of  our  flock  during  the  past  winter.  We  have  now  some 
facts  to  report  which  seem  to  verify  the  thought  that  we 
had — that  ensilage  will  enter  as  a  large  factor  in  the  fu- 
ture production  of  good  mutton  in  Minnesota.  Our  en- 
silage has  been  fed  (beginning  gradually)  in  troughs. 
These  troughs  can  be  readily  cleaned  by  being  turned 
over,  that  the  center  piece  prevents  any  chance  of  the 
sheep  jumping  over  them  and  so  soiling  the  food.  The 
troughs  are  also  wide  enough  so  that  two  rows  of  sheep 
will  feed  from  them  without  undue  crowding.  We  have 
enough  of  these  troughs,  so  that  when  the  flock  is  feeding, 
each  sheep  has  a  reasonable  space  to  feed  quietly.  This 
in  itself  is  an  advantage  that  every  feeder  of  stock  will 
understand. 

"As  a  result  so  far,  the  sheep  are  in  better  condition 
than  we  have  ever  had  them  before,  and,  in  fact,  to  use 
an  English  term,  they  are  in  "blooming"  condition.  We 
do  not  consider  that  they  are  any  too  fleshy,  but  in  a 
good,  bright,  healthy  state.  The  wool  is  evidently  of 
good  quality,  and  the  flock  will  shear  heavily.  The  sheep 
are  high  grade  Shropshires.  Good  shepherds  have  esti- 
mated that  they  will  furnish  between  seven  and  eight 
pounds  of  wool  per  head.  There  are  a  few  young  ewes 
in  the  flock  which  we  do  not  consider  in  this  estimate. 
The  ewes  are  beautiful  to  look  at,  square  on  the  back, 
bright  of  eye,  active  in  appearance,  and  when  the  time 
comes  for  the  feeding  of  ensilage  they  are  anxious  for 
their  feed,  and  in  case  there  is  any  lapse  in  time,  they 
soon  make  their  wants  known  by  bleating  about  the 


SILAGE   FOR    SHEEP.  179 

troughs.  The  flock  has  been  fed  ensilage  and  good  hay 
in  the  morning,  with  oat  hay  in  reasonable  abundance  in 
the  afternoon  or  evening.  We  have  about  ninety  head  of 
breeding  ewes,  including  the  lambs  referred  to,  and  they 
have  been  fed  two  grain  sacks  full  of  ensilage  each  day. 
This  is  not  by  any  means  heavy  feeding,  and  it  might  be 
increased  in  quantity.  This  is  a  matter  which  we  must 
learn  from  experience.  We  have  fed  the  ensilage  with 
care,  not  knowing  what  the  results  would  be  if  fed  heav- 
ily. Next  winter  we  plan  to  add  ensilage  to  the  feed  for 
our  fattening  flock.  From  the  little  experience  we  have 
had  so  far,  we  think  the  effects  will  be  good,  and  that  we 
shall  be  able  to  improve  the  quality  of  mutton  by  adding 
ensilage  to  the  other  feeds  that  we  shall  use  in  finishing 
our  fattening  flock." 

The  following  interesting  experience  illustrating  the 
value  of  silage  for  sheep-feeding  is  given  by  Mr.  William 
Woods,  a  celebrated  English  breeder  of  Hampshire- 
Downs:  "Last  year,  in  August,  I  found  myself  with  a 
flock  of  some  1,200  Hampshire-Down  ewes,  and  about 
twelve  or  fourteen  acres  of  swedes,  on  a  farm  of  4,000 
acres,  and  these  were  all  the  roots  there  were  to  feed 
them  and  their  lambs  during  the  winter.  Knowing  how 
we  should  suffer  from  want  of  milk  after  lambing  in  Jan- 
uary and  February,  I  thought  I  would  try  (which  no 
doubt  has  often  been  tried  elsewhere,  though  not  in  this 
district)  the  effect  of  ensilage  on  ewes  after  lambing, 
having  heard  by  hearsay  that  it  increased  the  milk  of 
cows  nearly  30  per  cent.  I  at  once  set  to  work  to  ir- 
rigate what  water  meadows  I  could  spare,  and  in  the 
month  of  October  had  a  crop  of  grass  that,  had  it  been 
possible  to  make  it  into  hay,  would  have  made  a  ton  of 
hay  to  the  acre.  I  bought  from  the  Aylesbury  Dairy  Com- 
pany one  of  their  Johnson's  ensilage  rick  presses,  and 
put  some  seventy  or  eighty  tons  of  cut  meadow  grass 
under  pressure.  It  must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind 
that  second  cut  water  meadow  grass  is  some  of  the 
poorest  stuff  that  is  consumed,  either  green  or  in  hay, 


180  HOW  TO  PEED  SILAGE. 

and,  therefore,  my  ensilage  was  not  as  good,  and  conse- 
quently not  as  favorable  a  trial,  as  if  it  had  been  made 
of  better  material. 

"In  January,  when  well  into  lambing,  I  opened  the 
stack,  and  began  to  feed  it  to  the  ewes  that  had  lambed. 
At  first  they  hardly  cared  to  eat  it,  but  by  degrees  they 
seemed  to  like  it  more.  They  had  a  night  and  morning 
meal  of  best  sainfoin  hay,  and  a  small  lot  of  ensilage 
with  the  cake  given  at  midday.  After  three  weeks'  trial 
what  the  shepherd  observed  was  this:  That  when  best 
sainfoin  hay  worth  £4  a  ton,  was  put  up  in  the  cages,  and 
ensilage  in  the  troughs  at  the  same  time,  half  the  sheep 
would  go  to  the-  hay  and  half  to  the  ensilage,  although 
there  was  sufficient  accommodation  for  the  whole  flock 
at  either  sort,  and  we  now  observe  that  with  the  ewes 
that  are  most  constant  to  the  ensilage,  their  lambs  are 
nourished  better  than  the  others.  We  have  not  lost  a 
single  lamb  from  scours,  and  have  some  470  lambs  from 
380  ewes  lambed  as  yet,  which  I  think  proves  the  value 
of  the  experiment.  As  soon  as  the  stuff  arrives  in  carts 
the  ewes  are  crazy  for  it,  and  almost  come  over  the 
hurdles,  so  eager  are  they  to  get  at  this  new  sort  of 
feed,  which,  as  I  have  stated,  is  only  water  meadow 
grass  ensilage." 

Silage  for  Swine. 

The  testimony  concerning  the  value  of  silage  as  a 
food  for  swine  is  conflicting,  both  favorable  and  unfavor- 
able reports  being  at  hand.  Many  farmers  have  tried 
feeding  it  to  their  hogs,  but  without  success.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  number  of  hog-raisers  have  had  good  suc- 
cess with  silage,  and  feed  it  regularly  to  their  swine.  It 
is  possible  that  the  differences  in  the  quality  of  the 
silage  and  of  the  methods  of  feeding  practiced  explain 
the  diversity  of  opinions  formed  concerning  silage  as 
hog  food.  According  to  Professor  Cook,  Col.  F.  D.  Cur- 
tiss,  the  great  American  authority  on  the  swine  industry, 
states  that  silage  is  valuable  to  add  to  the  winter  rations 


SILAGE  FOR  POULTRY.  181 

of  our  swine.  Mr.  J.  W.  Pierce  of  Indiana  writes  in  re- 
gard to  silage  for  hogs:  "We  have  fed  our  sows,  about 
twenty-five  in  number,  for  four  winters,  equal  parts  of 
ensilage  and  corn  meal  put  into  a  cooker,  and  brought 
up  to  a  steaming  state.  It  has  proved  to  be  very  bene- 
ficial to  them.  It  keeps  up  the  flow  of  milk  of  the  sows 
that  are  nursing  the  young,  equal  to  when  they  are  run- 
ning on  clover.  We  find,  too,  when  the  pigs  are  farrowed, 
they  become  more  robust,  and  take  to  nursing  much 
sooner  and  better  than  they  did  in  winters  when  fed  on 
an  exclusively  dry  diet.  We  also  feed  it  to  our  sheep. 
To  sixty  head  we  put  out  about  six  bushels  of  ensilage." 
Dr.  Bailey,  the  author  of  "The  Book  on  Ensilage,"  fed 
large  hogs  ten  pounds  of  silage,  and  one  pound  of  wheat 
bran,  with  good  results;  the  cost  of  the  ration  did  not 
exceed  2  cents  per  day.  He  states  that  clover  silage 
would  be  excellent,  and  would  require  no  additional  grain. 
Young  pigs  are  exceedingly  fond  of  silage.  Feeding  ex- 
periments conducted  at  Virginia  Experiment  Station  show 
that  silage  is  an  economical  maintenance  feed  for  hogs, 
when  fed  in  connection  with  corn,  but  not  when  fed  alone. 
In  feeding  silage  to  hogs,  care  should  be  taken  to 
feed  only  very  little,  a  pound  or  so,  at  the  start,  mixing 
it  with  corn  meal,  shorts,  or  other  concentrated  feeds. 
The  diet  of  the  hog  should  be  largely  made  up  of  easily 
digested  grain  food;  bulky,  coarse  feeds  like  silage  can 
only  be  fed  to  advantage  in  small  quantities,  not  to  ex- 
ceed three  or  four  pounds  per  head,  per  day.  As  in  case 
of  breeding  ewes,  silage  will  give  good  results  when  fed 
with  care  to  brood  sows,  keeping  the  system  in  order, 
and  producing  a  good  flow  of  milk. 

Silage  for  Poultry. 

But  little  experience  is  at  hand  as  to  the  use  of 
silage  as  a  poultry  food;  some  farmers,  however,  are 
feeding  a  little  silage  to  their  poultry  with  good  success. 
Only  small  quantities  should  of  course  be  fed,  and  it  is 
beneficial  as  a  stimulant  and  a  regulator,  as  much  as 


182  HOW  TO  FEED  SILAGE. 

food.  A  poultry  raiser  writes  as  follows  in  Orange  Judd 
Farmer,  concerning  his  experience  in  making  and  feed- 
ing silage  to  fowls.  Devices  similar  to  that  here  de- 
scribed have  repeatedly  been  explained  in  the  agricultural 
press:  "Clover  and  corn  silage  is  one  of  the  best  winter 
foods  for  poultry  raisers.  Let  me  tell  you  how  to  build 
four  silos  for  $1.  Buy  four  coal-oil  barrels  at  the  drug 
store,  burn  them  out  on  the  inside,  and  take  the  heads 
out.  Go  to  the  clover  field  when  the  second  crop  of  the 
small  June  clover  is  in  bloom,  and  cut  one-half  to  three- 
eighths  of  an  inch  in  length,  also  one-half  ton  of  sweet 
corn,  and  run  this  through  the  feed  cutter.  Put  into  the 
barrel  a  layer  of  clover,  then  a  layer  of  corn.  Having 
done  this,  take  a  common  building  jack-screw  and  press 
the  silage  down  as  firmly  as  possible.  Then  put  on  this 
a  very  light  sprinkling  of  pulverized  charcoal,  and  keep 
on  putting  in  clover  and  corn  until  you  get  the  barrel 
as  full  as  will  admit  of  the  cover  being  put  back.  After 
your  four  barrel  silos  are  filled,  roll  them  out  beside  the 
barn,  and  cover  them  with  horse  manure,  allowing  them 
to  remain  'there  thirty  days.  Then  put  them  away,  cov- 
ering with  cut  straw  or  hay.  When  the  cold,  chilling 
winds  of  December  come,  open  one  of  these  'poultrymen's 
silos,'  take  about  twenty  pounds  for  one  hundred  hens, 
add  equal  parts  of  potatoes,  ground  oats,  and  winter  rye, 
place  same  in  a  kettle  and  bring  to  a  boiling  state.  Feed 
warm  in  the  morning  and  the  result  will  be  that  you  will 
be  enabled  to  market  seven  or  eight  dozen  eggs  per  day 
from  one  hundred  hens  through  the  winter,  when  eggs 
bring  good  returns." 

Additional  Testimony  as  to  the  Value 
of   Silage. 

Corn  Silage  compared  with  root  crops. — Root  crops 
are  not  grown  to  any  large  extent  in  this  country,  but 
occasionally  an  old-country  farmer  is  met  with  who  grows 
roots  for  his  stock,  because  his  father  did  so,  and  his 
grandfather  and  great-grandfather  before  him.  This  is 


CORN  SILAGE  COMPARED  TO  ROOTS.  183 

what  a  well-known  English  writer,  R.  Henry  Rew,  says 
as  to  the  comparative  value  of  roots  and  silage,  from  the 
standpoint  of  an  English  farmer: 

"The  root  crop  has,  for  about  a  century  and  a  half, 
formed  the  keystone  of  arable  farming;  yet  it  is  the  root 
crop  whose  position  is  most  boldly  challenged  by  silage. 
No  doubt  roots  are  expensive — say  £10  per  acre  as  the 
cost  of  producing  an  ordinary  crop  of  turnips — and  pre- 
carious, as  the  experience  of  the  winter  of  1887-8  has 
once  more  been  notably  exemplified  in  many  parts  of  the 
country.  In  a  suggestive  article  in  the  Farming  World 
Almanac  for  1888,  Mr.  Primrose  McConnell  discusses  the 
question:  'Are  Turnips  a  Necessary  Crop?'  and  sums 
up  his  answer  in  the  following  definite  conclusion: 

"  'Everything,  in  short,  is  against  the  use  of  roots, 
either  as  a  cheap  and  desirable  food  for  any  kind  of  live 
stock,  as  a  crop  suited  for  the  fallow  break,  which  cleans 
the  land  at  little  outlay,  or  as  one  which  preserves  or 
increases  the  fertility  of  the  soil.' 

"If  the  growth  of  turnips  is  abandoned  or  restricted 
ensilage  comes  in  usually  t9  assist  the  farmer  in  supply- 
ing their  place.  *  *  *  When  one  comes  to  compare 
the  cultivation  of  silage  crops  with  that  of  roots,  there 
are  two  essential  points  in  favor  of  the  former.  One  is 
their  smaller  expense,  and  the  other  is  their  practical 
certainty.  The  farmer  who  makes  silage  can  make  cer- 
tain of  his  winter  store  of  food,  whereas  he  who  has  only 
his  root  crop  may  find  himself  left  in  the  lurch  at  a  time 
when  there  is  little  chance  of  making  other  provision." 

We  have  accurate  information  as  to  the  yields  and 
cost  of  production  of  roots  and  corn  silage  in  this  country 
from  a  number  of  American  Experiment  Stations.  This 
shows  that  the  tonnage  of  green  or  succulent  feed  per 
acre  is  not  materially  different  in  case  of  the  two  crops, 
generally  speaking.  But  when  the  quantities  of  dry  mat- 
ter harvested  in  the  crop  are  considered,  the  corn  has 
been  found  to  yield  about  twice  as  much  as  the  ordinary 
root  crops.  According  to  data  published  by  the  Pennsyl- 


184  HOW  TO  FEED  SILAGE. 

vania  Station,  the  cost  of  an  acre  of  beets  in  the  pit 
amounts  to  about  $56,  and  of  an  acre  of  corn  in  the  silo 
about  $21,  only  half  the  quantities  of  food  materials  ob- 
tained, and  at  more  than  double  the  cost. 

When  the  feeding  of  these  two  crops  has  been  de- 
termined, as  has  been  the  case  in  numerous  trials  at  ex- 
periment stations,  it  has  been  found  that  the  dry  matter 
of  beets  certainly  has  no  higher,  and  in  many  cases  has 
been  found  to  have  a  lower  value  than  that  of  corn 
silage;  the  general  conclusion  to  be  drawn,  therefore,  is 
that  "beets  cost  more  to  grow,  harvest  and  store,  yield 
less  per  acre,  and  produce  at  best  no  more  and  no  better 
milk  or  other  farm  product  than  corn  silage." 

Corn  silage  compared  with  hay.  A  ton  and  a  half  of 
hay  per  acre  is  generally  considered  a  good  average 
crop  in  humid  regions.  Since  hay  contains  about  86  per 
cent,  dry  matter,  a  crop  of  1%  tons  means  2,580  pounds 
of  dry  matter.  Against  this  yield  we  have  yields  of  5,000 
to  9,000  pounds  of  dry  matter,  or  twice  to  three  and  a 
half  times  as  much,  in  case  of  fodder  corn.  An  average 
crop  of  green  fodder  will  weigh  twelve  tons  of  Northern 
varieties  and  eighteen  tons  of  Southern  varieties.  Esti- 
mating the  percentage  of  dry  matter  in  the  former  at  30 
per  cent.,  and  in  the  latter  at  20  per  cent.,  we  shall  have  in 
either  case  a  yield  of  7,200  pounds  of  dry  matter.  If  we 
allow  for  10  per  cent  of  loss  of  dry  matter  in  the  silo  there 
is  still  6,500  pounds  of  dry  matter  to  be  credited  to  the 
corn.  The  expense  of  growing  the  corn  crop  is,  of  course, 
higher  than  that  of  growing  hay,  but  by  no  means  suffi- 
ciently so  to  offset  the  larger  yields.  It  is  a  fact  gen- 
erally conceded  by  all  who  have  given  the  subject  any 
study,  that  the  hay  crop  is  the  most  expensive  crop  used 
for  the  feeding  of  our  farm  animals. 

The  late  Sir  John  B.  Lawes,  of  Rothamsted  Experi- 
ment Station  (England)  said,  respecting  the  relative  value 
of  hay  and  (grass)  silage:  "It  is  probable  that  when 
both  (i.  e.,  hay  and  silage)  are  of  the  very  best  quality 
that  can  be  made,  if  part  of  the  grass  is  cut  and  placed 


CORN  SILAGE  COMPARED  TO  HAY.  185 

in  the  silo,  and  another  part  is  secured  in  the  stack 
without  rain,  one  might  prove  as  good  food  as  the  other. 
But  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  while  the  produc- 
tion of  good  hay  is  a  matter  of  uncertainty — from  the 
elements  of  success  being  beyond  the  control  of  the 
farmer — good  silage,  by  taking  proper  precautions,  can 
be  made  with  certainty." 

A  few  feeding  experiments  with  corn  silage  vs.  hay 
will  be  mentioned  in  the  following: 

In  an  experiment  with  milch  cows  conducted  at  the 
New  Hampshire  Station,  the  silage  ration,  containing 
16.45  pounds  of  digestible  matter,  produced  21.0  pounds  of 
milk,  and  the  hay  ration,  containing  16.83  pounds  digest- 
ible matter,  produced  18.4  pounds  milk;  calculating  the 
quantities  of  milk  produced  by  100  pounds  of  digestible 
matter  in  either  case,  we  find  on  the  silage  ration,  127.7 
pounds  of  milk,  on  the  hay  ration,  109.3  pounds,  or  17 
per  cent,  in  favor  of  the  silage  ration. 

In  a  feeding  experiment  with  milch  cows  at  the 
Maine  Station,  in  which  silage  likewise  was  compared 
with  hay,  the  addition  of  silage  to  the  ration  resulted 
in  a  somewhat  increased  production  of  milk  solids,  which 
was  not  caused  by  an  increase  in  the  digestible  food 
materials  eaten,  but  which  must  have  been  due  either  to 
the  superior  value  of  the  nutriments  of  the  silage  over 
those  of  the  hay  or  to  the  general  psychological  effect  of 
feeding  a  great  variety  of  foods.  8.8  pounds  of  silage 
proved  to  be  somewhat  superior  to  1.98  pounds  of  hay 
(mostly  timothy),  the  quantity  of  digestible  material  be- 
ing the  same  in  the  two  cases. 

In  another  experiment,  conducted  at  the  same  station, 
where  silage  was  compared  with  hay  for  steers,  a  pound 
of  digestible  matter  from  the  corn  silage  produced  some- 
what more  growth  than  a  pound  of  digestible  matter  from 
timothy  hay.  The  difference  was  small,  however,  amount- 
ing in  the  case  of  the  last  two  periods,  where  the  more 


186  HOW  TO  FEED  SILAGE. 

accurate  comparison  is  possible,  to  an  increased  growth 
of  only  15  pounds  of  live  weight  for  each  ton  of  silage  fed. 

Corn  Silage  compared  with  fodder  corn.  The  cost  of 
production  is  the  same  for  the  green  fodder  up  to  the 
time  of  siloing,  in  case  of  both  systems;  as  against  the 
expense  of  siloing  the  crop  comes  that  of  shocking,  and 
later  on,  placing  the  fodder  under  shelter  in  the  field- 
curing  process;  further  husking,  cribbing,  and  grinding 
the  corn,  and  cutting  the  corn  stalks,  since  this  is  the 
most  economical  way  of  handling  the  crop,  and  the  only 
way  in  which  it  can  be  fully  utilized  so  as  to  be  of  as 
great  value  as  possible  for  dry  fodder.  Professor  King 
found  the  cost  of  placing  corn  in  the  silo  to  be  58.6  cents 
per  ton,  on  the  average  for  five  Wisconsin  farms,  or,  add- 
ing to  this  amount,  interest  and  taxes  on  the  silo  invest- 
ment,, and  insurance  and  maintenance  of  silo  per  ton, 
73.2  cents.  The  expense  of  shocking  and  sheltering  the 
cured  fodder,  and  later  cutting  the  same,  will  greatly 
exceed  that  of  siloing  the  crop;  to  obtain  the  full  value 
in  feeding  the  ear  corn,  it  must,  furthermore,  in  most 
cases,  be  ground,  costing  ten  cents  or  more  a  bushel  of 
70  Ibs.  The  advantage  is,  therefore,  decidedly  with  the 
siloed  fodder  in  economy  of  handling,  as  well  as  in  the 
cost  of  production. 

The  comparative  feeding  value  of  corn  silage  and 
fodder  corn  has  been  determined  in  a  large  number  of 
trials  at  different  experiment  stations.  The  earlier  ones 
of  these  experiments  were  made  with  only  a  couple  of 
animals  each,  and  no  reliance  can,  therefore,  be  placed 
on  the  results  obtained  in  any  single  experiment.  In  the 
later  experiments  a  large  number  of  cows  have  been  in- 
cluded, and  these  have  been  continued  for  sufficiently 
long  time  to  show  what  the  animals  could  do  on  each  feed. 

A  few  experiments  illustrating  the  value  of  silage  as 
a  stock  food  may  be  quoted.  Prof.  Henry  fed  two  lots 
of  steers  on  a  silage  experiment.  One  lot  of  four  steers 
was  fed  on  corn  silage  exclusively,  and  another  similar 


SILAGE  AS  A  STOCK  FOOD.  187 

lot  corn  silage  with  shelled  corn.  The  former  lot  gained 
222  pounds  in  thirty-six  days,  and  the  latter  lot  535 
pounds,  or  a  gain  of  1.5  pounds  per  day  per  head  for  the 
silage-fed  steers,  and  3.7  pounds  per  day  for  the  silage 
and  shelled-corn-fed  steers.  Prof.  Emery  fed  corn  silage 
and  cotton-seed  meal,  in  the  proportion  of  eight  to  one, 
to  two  three-year-old  steers,  at  the  North  Carolina  Ex- 
periment Station.  The  gain  made  during  thirty-two  days 
was,  for  one  steer,  78  pounds,  and  for  the  other,  85.5 
pounds,  or  2.56  pounds  per  head  per  day. 

The  late  well-known  Wisconsin  dairyman,  Hon.  Hiram 
Smith,  in  1888  gave  the  following  testimony  concerning 
the  value  of  silage  for  milch  cows:  "My  silo  was  opened 
December  1st,  and  thirty  pounds  of  ensilage  was  fed  to 
each  of  the  ninety  cows  for  the  night's  feed,  or  2,700 
pounds  per  day,  until  March  10,  one  hundred  days,  or  a 
total  of  135  tons,  leaving  sufficient  ensilage  to  last  until 
May  10th.  The  thirty  pounds  took  and  well  filled  the 
place  of  ten  pounds  of  good  hay.  Had  hay  been  fed  for 
the  night's  feed  in  place  of  the  ensilage,  it  would  have 
required  900  pounds  per  day  for  the  ninety  cows,  or  a 
total  for  the  one  hundred  days  of  forty-five  tons. 

"It  would  have  required,  in  the  year  1887,  forty-five 
acres  of  meadow  to  have  produced  the  hay,  which,  if 
bought  or  sold,  would  have  amounted  to  $14.00  per  acre. 
The  135  tons  of  ensilage  were  produced  on  8Y2  acres  of 
land,  and  had  a  feeding  value,  as  compared  with  hay, 
of  $74.11  per  acre."  As  the  conclusion  of  the  whole  mat- 
ter, Mr.  Smith  stated  that  "three  cows  can  be  wintered 
seven  months  on  one  acre  producing  16*  tons  of  ensilage, 
while  it  required  two  acres  of  meadow  in  the  same  year 
of  1887  to  winter  one  cow,  with  the  same  amount  of  ground 
feed  in  both  cases." 

Professor  Shelton,  formerly  of  Kansas  Agricultural 
College,  gives  a  powerful  plea  for  silage  in  the  following 
simple  statement:  "The  .single  fact  that  the  product  of 
about  two  acres  of  ground  kept  our  herd  of  fifty  cattle 


188  HOW  TO  FEED  SILAGE. 

five  weeks  with  no  other  feed  of  the  fodder  kind,  except 
a  small  ration  of  corn  fodder  given  at  noon,  speaks  whole 
cyclopedias  for  the  possibilities  of  Kansas  fields  when 
the  silo  is  called  In  as  an  adjunct." 

In  conclusion.  We  will  bring  our  discussions  of  the 
silo  and  its  importance  in  American  agriculture,  to  a 
close  by  quoting  the  opinions  of  a  few  recognized  lead- 
ers on  agricultural  matters  as  to  the  value  of  silo  and 
silage. 

Says  Ex-Gov.  Hoard,  the  editor  of  Hoard's  Dairyman, 
and  a  noted  dairy  lecturer:  "For  dairying  of  all  the  year 
around  the  silo  is  almost  indispensable." 

Prof.  Hill,  the  director  of  Vermont  Experiment  Sta- 
tion: "It  was  long  ago  clearly  shown  that  the  most  eco- 
nomical farm-grown  carbohydrates  raised  in  New  England 
are  derived  from  the  corn  plant,  and  that  they  are  more 
economically  preserved  for  cattle  feeding  in  the  silo  than 
in  any  other  way." 

H.  C.  Wallace,  editor  Creamery  Gazette:  "While  not 
an  absolute  necessity,  the  silo  is  a  great  convenience  in 
the  winter,  and  in  times  of  protracted  dryness  almost  a 
necessity  in  summer." 

Prof.  Carlyle,  of  Wisconsin  Agricultural  College:  "A 
silo  is  a  great  labor-saving  device  for  preserving  the  cheap- 
est green  fodder  in  the  best  form." 

C.  P.  Goodrich,  conductor  of  Farmers'  Institutes  in 
Wisconsin,  and  a  well-known  lecturer  and  authority  on 
dairy  topics:  "A  farmer  can  keep  cows  profitably  with- 
out a  silo,  but  he  can  make  more  profit  with  one,  because 
he  can  keep  his  cows  with  less  expense  and  they  will 
produce  more." 

Prof.  Deane,  of  Ontario  Agricultural  College:  "The 
silo  is  becoming  a  greater  necessity  every  year  in  On- 
tario." 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  from  all  parts  of  the  world 
wherever  the  silo  is  in  use,  the  evidence  points  in  favor 
of  silage,  there  no  longer  being  an  argument  against  it, 


ECONOMY  IN  PRODUCTION  OF  FEED  MATERIALS    189 

in  connection  with  the  dairy,  and  especially  in  latitudes 
where  corn  can  be  grown. 

Economy  in  production  of  feed  materials  means  in- 
creased profits.  Competition  establishes  the  price  at  which 
the  farmer  and  dairyman  must  market  his  products;  but 
by  the  study  of  approved  and  modern  methods  the  farmer 
can  regulate  his  profits. 


CHAPTER  x. 

A   FEEDERS'    GUIDE. 

It  has  been  thought  best,  in  order  to  increase  the 
usefulness  of  this  little  book  to  practical  farmers,  to 
add  to  the  specific  information  given  in  the  preceding  as 
to  the  making  and  feeding  of  silage,  a  brief  general  outline 
of  the  main  principles  that  should  govern  the  feeding 
of  farm  animals.  This  will  include  a  statement  of  the 
character  of  the  various  components  of  the  feeding  stuffs 
used  for  the  nutrition  of  farm  stock,  with  tables  of 
composition,  and  a  glossary  of  scientific  agricultural 
terms  often  met  with  in  agricultural  papers,  experiment 
station  reports,  and  similar  publications.  Many  of  these 
terms  are  used  constantly  in  discussions  of  agricultural 
topics,  and  unless  the  farmer  has  a  fairly  clear  idea  of 
their  meaning  the  discussions  will  often  be  of  no  value 
to  him.  The  information  given  in  the  following  is  put 
in  as  plain  and  simple  language  as  possible,  and  only 
such  facts  are  given  as  are  considered  of  fundamental 
importance  to  the  feeding  of  farm  stock. 

Composition  of  the  Animal  Body. 

The  most  important  components  of  the  animal  body 
are:  water,  ash,  protein,  and  fat.  We  shall  briefly  de- 
scribe these  components: 

Water  is  found  in  larger  quantities  in  the  animal 
body  than  any  other  substance.  It  makes  up  for  about 
a  third  to  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  live  weight  of  farm 
animals.  The  fatter  the  animal  is  the  less  water  is  found 
in  its  body.  We  may  consider  50  per  cent,  of  the  body 
weight  a  general  average  for  the  water  content  of  the 
body  of  farm  animals.  When  it  comes  to  animal  products 
used  for  food  purposes,  there  are  wide  variations  in  the 
water  content;  from  between  80  and  90  per  cent,  in  case 
of  milk,  to  between  40  and  60  per  cent,  in  meat  of  various 
kinds,  about  12  per  cent,  in  butter,  and  less  than  10  per 
cent,  in  fat  salt  pork. 

Ash  or  mineral  matter  is  that  portion  of  the  animal 
body  which  remains  behind  when  the  body  is  burned. 
The  bones  of  animals  contain  large  quantities  of  min- 

190 


COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS.  191 

eral  matter,  while  the  muscles  and  other  parts  of  the 
body  contain  only  small  amounts;  it  must  not  be  con- 
cluded, however,  that  the  ash  materials  are  of  minor  im- 
portance for  this  reason;  both  the  young  and  full  grown 
animals  require  a  constant  supply  of  ash  materials  in 
their  food;  if  the  food  should  not  contain  a  certain  mini- 
mum amount  of  ash  materials,  and  of  various  compounds 
contained  therein  which  are  essential  to  life,  the  animal 
will  turn  sick  very  soon,  and  if  the  deficiency  is  not 
made  up  will  die,  no  matter  how  much  of  other  food  com- 
ponents is  supplied.  As  both  ash  and  water  are  either 
present  in  sufficient  quantities  in  feeding  stuffs,  or  can 
be  easily  supplied,  the  feeder  does  not  ordinarily  need 
to  give  much  thought  to  these  components  in  the  selec- 
tion of  foods  for  his  stock. 

Protein  is  not  the  name  of  any  single  substance,  but 
for  a  large  group  of  very  complex  substances  that  have 
certain  characteristics  in  common,  the  more  important 
of  which  is  that  they  all  contain  the  element  nitrogen. 
Hence  these  substances  are  also  known  as  nitrogenous 
components.  The  most  important  protein  substances 
found  in  the  animal  body  are:  lean  meat,  fibrin,  all  kinds 
of  tendons,  ligaments,  nerves,  skin,  brain,  in  fact  the 
entire  working  machinery  of  the  animal  body.  The  casein 
of  milk  and  the  white  of  the  egg  are,  furthermore,  protein 
substances.  It  is  evident  from  the  enumeration  made  that 
protein  is  to  the  animal  body  what  the  word  implies,  the 
most  important,  the  first. 

Fat  is  a  familiar  component  of  the  animal  body;  it 
is  distributed  throughout  the  body  in  ordinary  cases,  but 
is  found  deposited  on  certain  organs,  or  under  the  skin, 
in  thick  layers,  in  the  case  of  very  fat  animals. 

The  animal  cannot,  as  is  well  known,  live  on  air; 
it  must  manufacture  its  body  substances  and  products 
from  the  food  it  eats,  hence  the  next  subject  for  consider- 
ation should  be: 

Composition  of  Feeding  Stuffs. 

The  feeding  stuffs  used  for  the  nutrition  of  our  farm 
animals  are  composed  of  similar  compounds  as  those 
which  are  found  in  the  body  of  the  animal  itself,  although 
the  components  in  the  two  cases  are  rarely  identical, 
but  can  be  distinguished  from  each  other  in  most  cases 
by  certain  chemical  reactions.  The  animal  body  through 
its  vital  functions  has  the  faculty  of  changing  the  various 
food  substances  which  it  finds  in  the  food  In  such  a  way 


192  A  FEEDER'S  GUIDE. 

that  they  are  in  many  instances  different  from  any  sub- 
stances found  in  the  vegetable  world. 

The  components  of  feeding  stuffs  which  are  generally 
enumerated  and  taken  into  account  in  ordinary  chemical 
fodder  analysis,  or  in  discussions  of  feeding  problems 
are  Water  (or  Moisture,  as  it  is  often  called),  ash  ma- 
terials, fat  (or  ether-extract),  protein,  crude  fiber,  and 
nitrogen-free  extract;  the  two  components  last  given  are 
sometimes  grouped  together  under  the  name  Carbohy- 
drates. These  components  are  in  nearly  all  cases  mix- 
tures of  substances  that  possess  certain  properties  in 
common;  and  as  the  mixtures  are  often  made  up  of 
different  components,  or  of  the  same  components  in  vary- 
ing proportions,  it  follows  that  even  if  a  substance  is 
given  in  a  table  of  composition  of  feeding  stuffs,  in  the 
same  quantities  in  case  of  two  different  feeds,  these 
feeds  do  not  necessarily  have  the  same  food  value  as  far 
as  this  component  alone  is  concerned. 

Water  or  moisture  is  found  in  all  feeding  stuffs, 
whether  succulent  or  apparently  dry.  Green  fodders  con- 
tain from  60  to  90  per  cent,  of  water,  according  to  the 
stage  of  maturity  of  the  fodder;  root  crops  contain  be- 
tween 80  and  90  per  cent.,  while  hay  of  different  kinds, 
straw,  and  concentrated  feeds  ordinarily  have  water  con- 
tents ranging  between  15  and  8  per  cent. 

Ash  or  mineral  matter  is  found  in  all  plant  tissues 
and  feeding  stuffs.  We  find  most  ash  in  leafy  plants,  or 
in  refuse  feeds  made  up  from  the  outer  covering  of  grains 
or  other  seeds,  viz.,  from  4  to  8  per  cent;  less  in  the 
cereals  and  green  fodder,  and  least  of  all  in  roots.  A 
fair  amount  of  ash  materials  is  a  necessity  in  feeding 
young  stock  and  pregnant  animals,  and  only  limited 
amount  of  foods  low  in  ash  should  be  fed  to  such  animals; 
refuse  feed  from  starch  and  glucose  factories  which  have 
been  treated  with  large  quantities  of  water  should,  there- 
fore, be  fed  with  care  in  such  cases. 

Fat  or  ether-extract  is  the  portion  of  the  feeding 
stuff  which  is  dissolved  by  ether  or  benzine.  It  is  found 
in  large  quantities  in  the  oil-bearing  seeds,  more  than 
one-third  of  these  being  composed  of  oil  or  fat;  the  oil- 
mill  refuse  feeds  are  also  rich  in  fat,  especially  cotton 
seed  meal  and  old-process  linseed  meal;  other  feeds  rich 
in  fat  are  gluten  meal  and  feed,  grano-gluten  and  rice 
meal.  The  ether-extract  of  the  coarse  fodders  contains 
considerable  wax,  resins,  and  other  substances  which  have 
a  low  feeding  value,  while  that  of  the  seeds  and  by-products 
from  these  are  essentially  pure  fat  or  oil. 


COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS.  193 

Protein  or  flesh  forming  substances  are  considered  of 
the  highest  importance  in  feeding  animals,  because  they 
supply  the  material  required  for  building  up  the  tissues 
of  the  body,  and  for  maintaining  these  under  the  wear 
caused  by  the  vital  functions.  Ordinarily  the  feed  ra- 
tions of  most  farmers  are  deficient  in  protein  since  most 
of  the  farm-grown  foods  (not  including  clover,  alfalfa, 
peas  and  similar  crops)  contain  only  small  amounts  of 
these  substances.  The  feeding  stuffs  richest  in  protein 
are,  among  the  coarse  foods,  those  already  mentioned; 
among  the  concentrated  foods:  cottonseed  meal,  lin- 
seed meal,  gluten  meal,  gluten  feed,  grano-gluten,  buck- 
wheat, middlings,  and  the  flour-mill,  brewery,  and  distillery 
refuse  feeds.  The  protein  substances  are  also  called  nitro- 
genous bodies  for  the  reasons  given  above,  and  the  other 
organic  (combustible)  components  in  the  feeding  stuffs 
are  spoken  of  as  non-nitrogenous  substances.  The  non- 
nitrogenous  components  of  feeding  stuffs,  therefore,  include 
fat  and  the  two  following  groups,  crude  fiber  and  nitrogen- 
free  extract. 

Crude  fiber  is  the  framework  of  the  plants,  forming 
the  walls  of  the  cells.  It  is  usually  the  least  digestible 
portion  of  plants  and  vegetable  foods,  and  the  larger  pro- 
portion present  thereof  the  less  valuable  the  food  is.  We 
find,  accordingly,  that  the  fodders  containing  most  crude 
fiber  are  the  cheapest  foods  and  least  prized  among  feed- 
ers, as,  e.  g.,  straw  of  the  various  cereal  and  seed-pro- 
ducing crops,  corncobs,  oats  and  rice  hulls,  cotton-seed 
hulls,  buckwheat  hulls,  and  the  like.  These  feeding  stuffs, 
in  so  far  as  they  can  be  considered  as  such,  contain  as 
a  rule  between  35  and  50  per  cent,  of  crude  fiber.  Con- 
centrated feeding  stuffs,  on  the  other  hand,  often  con- 
tain less  than  5  per  cent,  of  crude  fiber,  and  in  the  cereals 
only  a  couple  of  per  cent,  of  crude  fiber  are  found. 

Nitrogen-free  extract  is  a  general  name  for  all  that 
is  left  of  the  organic  matter  of  plants  and  fodders  after 
deducting  the  preceding  group  of  compounds.  Jt  in- 
cludes some  of  the  most  valuable  constituents  of  feeding 
stuffs,  which  make  up  the  largest  bulk  of  the  food  ma- 
terials; first  in  importance  among  these  constituents  are 
starch  and  sugar,  and,  in  addition,  a  number  of  less  well- 
known  substances  of  similar  compositions,  like  pentosans, 
gums,  organic  acids,  etc.  Together  with  crude  fiber  the 
nitrogen-free  extract  forms  the  group  of  substances  known 
as  carbohydrates.  A  general  name  for  carbohydrates  is 
heat-producing  substances,  since  this  is  one  important 
function  which  they  fill;  they  are  not  as  valuable  for 
13 


194  A   FEEDER'S    GUIDE. 

this  purpose,  pound  for  pound,  as  fat,  which  also  is  often 
used  for  the  purpose  by  the  animal  organism,  but  on  ac- 
count of  the  large  quantities  in  which  the  carbohydrates 
are  found  in  most  feeding  stuffs  they  form  a  group  of 
food  materials  second  to  none  in  importance.  Since  it 
has  been  found  that  fat  will  produce  about  2V2  times  as 
much  heat  as  carbohydrates  on  combustion,  the  two  com- 
ponents are  often  considered  together  in  tables  of  com- 
position of  feeding  stuffs  and  discussion  of  the  feeding 
value  of  different  foods,  the  per  cent,  of  fat  being  multi- 
plied by  2^  in  such  cases,  and  added  to  the  per  cent,  of 
carbohydrates  (i.  e.,  crude  fiber  plus  nitrogen-free  extract) 
in  the  foods.  As  this  renders  comparisons  much  easier, 
and  simplifies  discussions  for  the  beginner,  we  shall  adopt 
this  plan  in  the  tables  and  discussions  given  in  this  Guide. 

Carbohydrates  and  fat  not  only  supply  heat  on  being 
oxidized  or  burned  in  the  body,  but  also  furnish  ma- 
terials for  energy  used  in  muscular  action,  whether  this 
be  voluntary  or  involuntary.  They  also  in  all  probability 
are .  largely  used  for  the  purpose  of  storing  fatty  tissue 
in  the  body  of  fattening  animals,  or  of  other  animals  that 
are  fed  an  excess  of  nutrients  above  what  is  required 
for  the  production  of  the  necessary  body  heat  and  mus- 
cular force. 

To  summarize  briefly  the  use  of  the  various  food 
elements:  Protein  is  required  for  building  up  muscular 
tissue,  and  to  supply  the  breaking  down  and  waste  of 
nitrogenous  components  constantly  taking  place  in  the 
living  body.  If  fed  in  excess  of  this  requirement  it  is 
used  for  production  of  heat  and  energy.  The  non-nitro- 
genous organic  components,  i.  e.,  carbohydrates  and  fat, 
furnish  material  for  supply  of  heat  and  muscular  exer- 
tion, as  well  as  for  the  production  of  fat  in  the  body  or 
in  the  milk,  in  case  of  milch  cows  giving  milk. 

Digestibility  of  foods.  Only  a  certain  portion  of  a 
feeding  stuff  is  of  actual  value  to  the  animal,  viz.,  the 
portion  which  the  digestive  juices  of  the  animal  can 
render  soluble,  and  thus  bring  into  a  condition  in  which 
the  system  can  make  the  use  of  it  called  for;  this  digesti- 
ble portion  ranges  from  half  or  less  to  more  than  96 
per  cent,  in  case  of  highly  digestible  foods.  The  rest  is 
simply  ballast,  and  the  more  ballast,  i.  e.,  the  less  of 
digestible  matter  a  food  contains,  the  more  the  value 
of  the  digestible  portion  is  reduced.  Straw,  e.  .-g.,  is 
found,  by  means  of  digestion  experiments,  to  contain  be- 
tween 30  and  40  per  cent,  of  digestible  matter  in  all,  but 
it  is  very  doubtful  whether  an  animal  can  be  kept  aliTe 


CLASSIFICATION    OP   CATTLE   POODS. 


195 


for  any  length  of  time  when  fed  straw  alone.  It  very 
likely  costs  him  more  effort  to  extract  the  digestible 
matter  therefrom  than  the  energy  this  can  supply.  An 
animal  lives  on  and  produces  not  from  what  he  eats  but 
from  what  he  digests. 

Relative  value  of  feeding  stuffs.  Since  the  price  of 
different  feeding  stuffs  varies  greatly  with  the  locality 
and  season,  it  is  impossible  to  give  definite  statements 
as  to  the  relative  economy  which  will  hold  good  always; 
it  may  be  said,  in  general,  that  the  feeding  stuffs  richest 
in  protein  are  our  most  costly  and  at  the  same  time  our 
most  valuable  foods.  Experience  has  shown  to  a  cer- 
tainty that  a  liberal  supply  of  protein  is  an  advantage 
in  feeding  most  classes  of  farm  animals,  so  that  if  such 
feeding  stuffs  can  be  obtained  at  fair  prices,  it  will  pay 
to  feed  them  quite  extensively,  and  they  must  enter  into 
all  food  rations  in  fair  quantities  in  order  that  the 
animals  may  produce  as  much  milk,  meat,  or  other  farm 
products,  as  is  necessary  to  render  them  profitable  to 
their  owner.  The  following  statement  shows  a  classifica- 
tion of  feeding  stuffs  which  may  prove  helpful  in  decid- 
ing upon  kinds  and  amounts  of  feeds  to  be  purchased 
or  fed. 

CLASSIFICATION   OF   CATTLE   FOODS. 


COARSE  FEEDS. 


1 

9 

3 

Low  in  protein. 

High  in   carbohy- 
drates. 

50  to  65  per  cent, 
digestible. 

Medium     in    pro- 
tein. 
Medium  in  carbo- 
hydrates. 
55  to  65  per  cent, 
digestible. 

Low  In  protein. 

High   in  carbohy- 
drates. 

85  to  95  per  cent, 
digestible. 

Hays,  straws, 
corn  fodder, 
corn  stover, 
silage,  cereal 
fodderi. 

Clovers, 
pasture  grass, 
vetches,  pea 
and  bean  fod- 
der. 

Carrots,  potatoes, 
sugar  beets, 
mangolds,  tur- 
nips. 

196 


FEEDER'S    GUIDE. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    CATTLE    FOODS CONTINUED 


Very  high 
protein 
(above  40  per 
cent.) 

High   in   pro- 
tein 
(25-40  per  ct.) 

Fairly  high  in 
protein 
(12-25  per  ct.) 

Low  in 
protein 
(below  12  per 
cent.) 

Dried   blood. 

Gluten   meal. 

Malt  sprouts. 

Wheat. 

Meat   scraps. 

Atlas  meal. 

Dried 

Barley. 

Cotton-seed 

Linseed  meal. 

brewers' 

Oats. 

meal. 

Buckwheat 

grains. 

Rye. 

middlings. 

Gluten  feed. 

Corn. 

Buckwheat 

Cow  pea. 

Rice  polish. 

shorts. 

Pea  meal. 

Rice. 

Soja-bean. 

Wheat  shorts. 

Hominy 

Grano-gluten. 

Rye  shorts. 

chops. 

Oat  shorts. 

Germ  meal. 

Wheat  mid- 

Oat feeds. 

dlings. 

Wheat  bran. 

Low-grade 

flour. 

Feeding  Standards. 

Investigations  by  scientists  have  brought  to  light  the 
fact  that  the  different  classes  of  farm  animals  require 
certain  amounts  of  food  materials  for  keeping  the  body 
functions  in  regular  healthy  activity;  this  is  known  as 
the  maintenance  ration  of  the  animal,  an  allowance  of 
feed  which  will  cause  him  to  maintain  his  live  weight 
without  either  gaining  or  losing,  or  producing  animal 
products  like  milk,  wool,  meat,  eggs,  etc.  If  the  animal 
is  expected  to  manufacture  these  products  in  addition, 
it  is  necessary  to  supply  enough  extra  food  to  furnish 
materials  for  this  manufacture.  The  food  requirements 
for  different  purposes  have  been  carefully  studied,  and 
we  know  now  with  a  fair  amount  of  accuracy  how  much 
food  it  takes  in  the  different  cases  to  reach  the  objects 
sought.  Since  there  is  a  great  variety  of  different  foods, 
and  almost  infinite  possible  combinations  of  these,  it 
would  not  do  to  express  these  requirements  in  so  and 
so  many  pounds  of  corn  or  oats,  or  wheat  bran,  but  they 
are  in  all  cases  expressed  in  amounts  of  digestible  pro- 
tein, carbohydrates  and  fat.  This  enables  the  feeder  to 
supply  these  food  materials  in  such  feeding  stuffs  as  he 


A  PRACTICAL  FEEDING  RATION.  197 

has  on  hand  or  can  procure.  The  feeding  standards  com- 
monly adopted  as  basis  for  calculations  of  this  kind  are 
those  of  the  German  scientists,  Wolff  and  Lehmann. 
Those  standards  give,  then,  the  approximate  amount  of 
dry  matter,  digestible  protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fat 
which  the  different  classes  of  farm  animals  should  re- 
ceive in  their  daily  food  in  order  to  produce  maximum 
returns.  We  have  seen -that  a  fair  amount  of  digestible 
protein  in  the  food  is  essential  in  order  to  obtain  good 
results.  The  proportion  of  digestible  nitrogenous  to 
digestible  non-nitrogenous  food  substances  therefore  be- 
comes important.  This  proposition  is  technically  known 
as  Nutritive  Ration,  and  we  speak  of  wide  nutritive  ratio, 
when  there  are  six  or  more  times  as  much  digestible 
carbohydrates  and  fat  in  a  ration  as  there  is  digestible 
protein,  and  a  narrow  ratio,  when  the  proportion  of  the 
two  kinds  of  food  materials  is  as  1  to  6,  or  less. 

The  feeding  standards  given  in  the  following  tables 
may  serve  as  a  fairly  accurate  guide  in  determining  the 
food  requirements  of  farm  animals;  and  it  will  be  noticed 
that  the  amounts  are  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight,  and 
not  per  head,  except  as  noted  in  the  case  of  growing 
animals.  They  should  not  be  looked  upon  as  infallible 
guides,  which  they  are  not,  for  the  simple  reason  that 
different  animals  differ  greatly  both  in  the  amounts  of 
food  that  they  consume  and  in  the  uses  which  they  are 
able  to  make  of  the  food  they  eat.  The  feeding  standard 
for  milch  cows  has  probably  been  subjected  to  the  closest 
study  by  American  experiment  station  workers,  and  it 
has  been  found  in  general  that  the  Wolff-Lehmann  -stan- 
dard calls  for  more  digestible  protein  (i.  e.,  a  narrower 
nutritive  ration)  than  can  be  fed  with  economy  in  most  of 
the  dairy  sections  of  our  country,  at  least  in  the  central 
and  northwestern  states.  On  basis  of  investigations  con- 
ducted in  the  early  part  of  the  nineties,  along  this  line, 
Prof.  Woll,  of  Wisconsin,  proposed  a  so-called  American 
practical  feeding  ration,  which  calls  for  the  following 
amount  of  digestible  food  materials  in  the  daily  ration  of 
a  dairy  cow  of  an  average  weight  of  1,000  pounds. 

Digestible    protein 2.2  Ibs. 

Digestible    Carbohydrates.  .13.3  Ibs.    )    carbohydrates+fat 

Digestible    fat 7  Ibs.  X2±/4,  14.9  Ibs. 

Total  digestive  matter 17.1  Ibs.    )    protein+carbohy- 

drates-ffatx21/4. 
Nutritive    ratio 1:6.9 


198 


A  FEEDER'S  GUIDE. 


FEEDING   STANDARDS   FOR    FARM    ANIMALS. 

(WOLFF-LEHMANN. ) 

Per  day  and  per  1000  Ibs.  live  weight. 


Total  Dry;Sub  stance. 

Nutritive 
(Digestible) 
Substances. 

Total  Nutritive 
Substances. 

Nutritive  Ratio. 

Crude  Protein. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Ether  Extract. 

1      Steers  at  rest  in  stall 

Ibs. 
18 
22 
25 
28 

30 
30 
26 

25 
27 
29 
32 

20 
23 

25 

30 
26 

20 
24 
26 

22 

36 
32 
25 

23 
24 
27 
26 
26 

Ibs. 
0.7 
1.4 
2.0 

2.8 

2.5 
3.0 

2.7 

1.6 
2.0 
2.5 
3.3 

1.2 
1.5 

2.9 

3.0 
3.5 

i:* 

2.5 
2.5 

4.5 

4.0 
2.7 

4.0 
3.0 
2.0 
1.8 
1.5 

Ibs. 
8.0 
10  0 
11.5 
13.0 

15.0 
14.5 
15.0 

10.0 
11.0 
13.0 
13.0 

10.5 
12.5 

15.0 

18.0 
14.0 

9.5 
11.0 
13.3 

15.5 

25  0 
24.0 
18.0 

13.0 
12.8 
12.5 
12.5 
12.0 

Ibs. 
0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.8 

0.5 

0.7 
0.7 

0.3 

0.4 
0.5 
0.8 

0.2 
0.3 

0.5 

0.5 
0.6 

0.4 

0.6 
0.8 

0.4 

0.7 
0.5 
0.4 

2.0 
1.0 
0.5 
0.4 
0.3 

Ibs. 
8.9 
12.1 

14.7 

17.7  ' 

18.7 
19.2 
19.4 

12.3 
14.0 
16.7 
18.2 

12.2 
14.2 

19.1 

19.2 
19.4 

12.0 
14.5 
17.7 

19.0 

31.2 

29.2 
22.0 

21.8 
18.2 
15.7 
15.3 
14.2 

1:11.8 
1:  7.7 
1:  6.5 
1:  5.3 

1:  6.5 
1:  5.4 
1:  6.2 

1:  6.7 
1:  6.0 

1:  5.7 
1:  4.5 

1:  9.1 

1:  8.5 

1:  5.6 

1:  5.4 

1:  4.5 

1:  7.0 
1:  6.2 
1:  6.0 

l:  6.6 

l:  5.9 
1:  6.3 
1:  7.0 

1:  4.5 
1:  5.1 
1:  6.8 
1:  7.5 
1:  8.5 

t."       slightly  worked  

"       moderately  worked  
"       heavily  worked  

2     Fattening  steers  1st  period  

"               "        2nd      " 

««                "         3d        "       

3.    Milch  cows,  daily  milk  yield,  11   Ibs. 
"       16.5  "  . 
22     "  . 

4     Wool  sheep,  coarser  breeds  

finer          "       
5.    Breeding  ewes,  with  lambs  

6     Fattening  sheep,  1st  period  

«                «        2nd      " 

7     Horses  lightly  worked  ... 

"       moderately  worked 

"       heavily  worked  

8     Brood  sows  with  pigs  

9     Fattening  swine,  1st  period  

"              "        2nd      " 

"             "        3d        " 

10.    Growing  cattle: 

DAIRY  BREEDS. 

Avr.  Live  Weight 
Age,  Months.                      Per  Head. 
2-3                                154  Ibs  

3-  6                                309    " 

6-12                                507    "  

12-18                                705     " 

18-24                               882    "  

FEEDING  STANDARDS. 


199 


FEEDING   STANDARDS  FOR  FARM  ANIMALS — CONTINUED. 


6 

Nutritive 

o 

r< 

(Digestible) 

i 

1 

Substances 

o 

fl 

1 

IP 

3 

GO 

% 

i 

I! 

1 

. 

tf 

£ 

f^  $ 

HH 

a 

£ 

N 

i 

i 

0) 

c 

a 

I1 

1 

1 

I 

B 

6 

O 

H 

H 

Ibs 

Ibs 

Ibs. 

Ibs 

Ibs. 

11.    Growing  cattle: 

BEEF  BREEDS. 

Avr.  Live  Weigh 

Age.  Months.                     Per  Head. 

2-  3                               165  Ibs 

23 

4.2 

13.0 

2.0 

20.0 

1:4.2 

3-  6                               331    " 

24 

3.5 

12.8 

1.5 

19.9 

1:4.7 

6-12                              551    " 

25 

2.5 

13.2 

0.7 

14.4 

1:6.0 

12-18                               750    " 

24 

2.0 

12.5 

0.5 

15.7 

1:6.8 

18-24                              937    " 

24 

1.8 

12.0 

0.4 

14.8 

1:7.2 

12.    Growing  sheep  : 

WOOL  BREEDS. 

4-  6                                   60.1bs   ...    . 

25 

3.4 

15.4 

0.7 

20.5 

1:5.0 

P6-  8                                  75     "...    . 

25 

2.8 

13  8 

0.6 

18.0 

1:5.4 

7-11                                  84    "     ...    . 

23 

2.1 

11  5 

0.5 

14.8 

1:6.0 

11-15                                  90     "     ...    . 

22 

1.8 

11.2 

0.4 

14.0 

1:7.0 

15-20                                99    "     ...    . 

22 

1.5 

0.8 

0.3 

13.0 

1:7.7 

13.    Growing  sheep  : 

MUTTON  BREEDS. 

4-  6                               66  Ibs... 

26 

4.4 

5.5 

0.9 

22.1 

1:4.0 

6-8                               84    "  .  . 

26 

q  c 

5  ( 

0  7 

1  '4  8 

8-11                             101    "  

24 

o.O 

3.0 

U.  l 

0.5 

18.'5 

1:5.2 

11-15                               121    "  .  . 

23 

2'« 

A  F: 

16  0 

-I  .f>   9 

15-20                               154    "  

22 

2.0 

.' 
2.0 

U.  O 

0.4 

15^0 

J.  .O.O 

1:6.5 

14.    Growing  swine: 

:  BREEDING  ANIMALS. 

2-  3                                  44  Ibs  

44 

7.6 

8.0 

1.0 

38.0 

1:4.0 

3-  5                                  99    ". 

35 

5  0 

3.1 

0  8 

300 

1:5  0 

5-6                                121    "  

32 

1.7 

0.4 

26.0 

1:6.0 

6-8                                176    "  

28 

2.8 

S'.7 

0.3 

22.2 

1:4.0 

8-12                                265     "... 

25 

2.1 

5.3 

0.2 

17.9 

1:7.5 

15.    Growing  fat  pigs: 

2-  3                               44  Ibs  

44 

7.6 

8.0 

1.0 

38.0 

1:4.0 

3-5                               110    "  

35 

3  1 

0.8 

30.0 

1:5.0 

5-  6                               143    "... 

33 

is 

2.'3 

0  6 

28.0 

1:5.5 

6-  8                              198    " 

30 

!  6 

)  5 

0  4 

25  1 

1:6.0 

8-12                              287    "  

26 

3.'0 

8.'  3 

0.3 

22.0 

1:6.4 

200  A  FEEDER'S  GUIDE. 


How  to  Figure  Oat  Rations. 

We  shall  use  the  practical  American  feeding  ration 
as  a  basis  for  figuring  out  the  food  materials  which 
should  be  supplied  a  dairy  cow  weighing  1,000  pounds,  in 
order  to  insure  a  maximum  and  economical  production  of 
milk  and  butter  fat  from  her.  We  shall  suppose  that  a 
farmer  has  the  following  foods  at  his  disposal:  corn 
silage,  mixed  timothy  and  clover  hay,  and  wheat  bran; 
and  that  he  has  to  feed  about  forty  pounds  of  silage  per 
head  daily,  in  order  to  have  it  last  through  the  winter  and 
spring.  We  will  suppose  that  he  gives  his  cows  in  addi- 
tion five  pounds  of  hay  and  about  six  pounds  of  bran. 
If  we  now  look  up  in  the  tables  given  on  pages  211  to 
215,  the  amounts  of  digestible  food  components  contained 
in  the  quantities  given  of  these  feeds,  we  shall  have: 

Total  Digestible  Total        Nut. 

DryMtr.        Pro.  Carb.  &  fat.       Dig.  Mtr.  Ratio. 

40  Ibs.  corn  silage,       10.5  Ibs.     .48  Ibs.     7.1  Ibs.     7.58 

5  Ibs.  mixed  hay,          4.2  .22  2.2  2.42 

6  Ibs.  wheat  bran,      5.3  .72  2.8  3.52 

20.0          1.42          12.1          13.52     1:   8.5 

We  notice  that  the  ration  as  now  given  contains  too 
little  total  digestible  matter,  there  being  a  deficit  of  both 
digestible  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fat,  it  will  evidently 
be  necessary  to  supply  at  least  a  couple  of  pounds  more 
of  some  concentrated  feed,  and  preferably  of  a  feed  rich 
in  protein,  since  the  deficit  of  this  component  is  propor- 
tionately greater  than  that  of  the  other  components.  In 
selecting  a  certain  food  to  be  added  and  deciding  the 
quantities  to  be  fed  the  cost  of  different  available  foods 
must  be  considered.  We  will  suppose  that  linseed  meal 
can  be  bought  at  a  reasonable  price  in  this  case,  and 
will  add  two  pounds  thereof  to  the  ration.  We  then  have 
the  following  amounts  of  digestible  matter  in  the  ration: 

Total  Digestible  Total       Nut. 

DryMtr.         Pro.  Carb.  &  fat.       Dig.  Mtr.  Ratio. 

Ration  as  above,      20.0  Ibs.     1.42  Ibs.     12.1  Ibs.     13.25    1:6.4 
21bs.oilmeal(O.P.)    1.8  .62  1.0  1.62 


Total,             21.8  2.04  13.1  16.14  1:6.4 

Amer.  prac.  feeding  ration,  2.2  14.9  17.1  1:6.9 
Wolff-Lehman 

standard,             29.0  2.5  14.1  16.6  -1:5.7 


HOW  TO  FIGURE  OUT  RATIONS.  201 

• 

The  new  ration  is  still  rather  light,  both  in  total  and 
digestible  food  materials;  for  many  cows  it  might  prove 
effective  as  it  is,  while  for  others  it  would  doubtless  be 
improved  by  a  further  addition  of  some  concentrated  food 
medium  rich  in  protein,  or  if  grain  feeds  are  high,  of  more 
hay  or  silage.  The  feeding  rations  are  not  intended  to  be 
used  as  infallible  standards  that  must  be  followed  blindly, 
nor  could  they  be  used  as  such.  They  are  not  only  meant 
to  be  approximate  gauges  by  which  the  farmer  may  know 
whether  the  ration  which  he  is  feeding  is  of  about  such 
a  composition  and  furnishes  such  amount  of  important 
food  materials  are  most  likely  to  produce  best  results, 
cost  of  feed  and  returns  in  products  as  well  as  condition 
of  animals  being  all  considered. 

In  constructing  rations  according  to  the  above  feeding 
standard,  several  points  must  be  considered  besides  the 
chemical  composition  and  the  digestibility  of  the  feeding 
stuffs;  the  standard  cannot  be  followed  directly  without 
regard  to  bulk  and  other  properties  of  the  fodder;  the 
ration  must  not  be  too  bulky,  and  still  must  contain  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  roughage  to  keep  up  the  rumination 
of  the  animals,  in  case  of  cows  and  sheep,  and  to  secure 
a  healthy  condition  of  the  animals  generally.  The  local 
market  prices  of  cattle  foods  are  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance in  determining  which  foods  to  buy;  the  conditions 
in  the  different  sections  of  our  great  continent  differ  so 
greatly  in  this  respect  that  no  generalizations  can  be 
made.  Generally  speaking,  nitrogenous  concentrated  feeds 
are  the  cheapest  feeds  in  the  south  and  in  the  east,  and 
flour-mill,  brewery,  and  starch-factory  -refuse  feeds  the 
cheapest  in  the  northwest. 

The  tables  given  on  pages  211  to  215  will  be  found  of 
great  assistance  in  figuring  out  the  nutrients  in  feed 
rations;  the  tables  have  been  reproduced  from  a  bulletin 
published  by  the  Vermont  Experiment  Station,  and  are 
based  upon  the  latest  compilations  of  analyses  of  feeding 
stuffs.  A  few  rations  are  given  in  the  following  as  samples 
of  combinations  of  different  kinds  of  feed  with  corn  silage 
that  will  produce  good  results  with  dairy  cows.  The 
rations  given  on  page  171  may  also  be  studied  to  advan- 
tage in  making  up  feed  rations  with  silage  for  dairy  cows. 
The  Experiment  Stations  or  other  authorities  publishing 
the  rations  are  given  in  all  cases. 


202 


A  FEEDER'S  GUIDE. 


GRAIN    MIXTURE   FOR   DAIRY    COWS. 

Mixtures  to  be  fed  with  one  bushel  of  silage  and  hay, 
or  with  corn  stover  or  hay. 

Massachusetts  Experiment  Station. 


100  Ibs.  bran. 

100  Ibs.  flour  and  middlings. 

150  Ibs.  gluten  feed. 

Mix  and  feed  7_quarts  daily. 


100  Ibs.  bran. 

100  Ibs.  flour  middlings. 

100  Ibs.  gluten  or  cottonseed  meal. 

Mix  and  feed  7  to  8  quarts  daily. 


100  Ibs.  cottonseed  or  gluten  meal. 

150  Ibs.  corn  and  cob  meal. 

100  Ibs.  bran. 

Mix  and  feed  7  to  8  quarts  daily. 


100  Ibs.  bran  or  mixed  feed. 

150  Ibs.  gluten  feed. 

Mix  and  feed  9  quarts  daily. 


200  Ibs.  malt  sprouts. 

100  Ibs.  bran. 

100  Ibs.  gluten  feed. 

Mix  and  feed  10  to  12  qts.  daily 


125zlbs.  gluten  feed. 

100  Ibs.  corn  and  cob  meal. 

Mix  and  feed  5  to  6  qts.  daily. 


New  Jersey  Experiment  Station:  (1)  40  Ibs.  corn  silage, 
5  Ibs.  gluten  feed,  5  Ibs.  dried  brewers'  grains,  2  Ibs. 
wheat  bran. 

(2)  35  Ibs.  corn  silage,  5  Ibs.  mixed  hay,  5  Ibs.  wheat 
bran,   2   Ibs.   each   of  oil  meal,   gluten  meal  and  hominy 
meal. 

(3)  40  Ibs.  corn  silage,  5  Ibs.  clover  hay,  3  Ibs.  wheat 
bran,  2  Ibs.  malt  sprouts,  1  Ib.  each  of  cottonseed  meal 
and  hominy  meal. 

(4)  40   Ibs.   corn   silage,   4   Ibs.   dried  brewers'   grain, 
4  Ibs.  wheat  bran,  2  Ibs.  oil  meal. 

Maryland  Experiment  Station:  (1)  40  Ibs.  silage,  5 
Ibs.  clover  hay,  9  Ibs.  wheat  middlings,  and  1  Ib.  gluten 
meal. 

(2)  30  Ibs.  silage,  8  Ibs.  corn  fodder,  6  Ibs.  cow  pea 
hay,  3  Ibs.  bran,  2  Ibs.  gluten  meal. 

Michigan  Experiment  .  Station:  (1)  40  Ibs.  silage, 
8  Ibs.  mixed  hay,  8  Ibs.  bran,  3  Ibs.  cottonseed  meal. 

(2)  30  Ibs.  silage,  5  Ibs.  mixed  hay,  4  Ibs.  corn  meal, 
4  Ibs.  bran,  2  Ibs.  cottonseed  meal,  2  Ibs.  oil  meal. 

(3)  30  Ibs.   silage,  10   Ibs.   clover  hay,  4  Ibs.  bran,  4 
Ibs.  corn  meal,  3  Ibs.  oil  meal. 


GRAIN  MIXTURES  FOR  DAIRY  COWS.  203 

(4)     30  Ibs.  silage,  4  Ibs.  clover  hay,  10  Ibs.  bran. 

Kansas  Experiment  Station:  (1)  Corn  silage  40  Ibs., 
10  Ibs.  prairie  hay  or  millet,  4%  Ibs.  bran,  3  Ibs.  cot- 
tonseed meal. 

(2)  40    Ibs.    corn    silage,    10    Ibs.    corn    fodder,    4   Ibs. 
bran,  2  Ibs.  Chicago  gluten  meal,  2  Ibs.  cottonseed  meal. 

(3)  40    Ibs.    corn    silage,   5    Ibs.    sorghum    hay,    3    Ibs. 
corn,  iy2  Ibs.  bran,  3  Ibs.  gluten  meal,  iy2  Ibs.  cottonseed 
meal. 

(4)  30  Ibs.  corn  silage,  10  Ibs.  millet,  4  Ibs.  corn,  1  Ib. 
gluten  meal,  3  Ibs.  cottonseed  meal. 

(5)  30  Ibs.  corn  silage,   15  Ibs.  fodder   corn,  21/&   Ibs. 
bran,  3  Ibs.  gluten  meal,  iy2  Ibs.  cottonseed  meal. 

(6)  30  Ibs.  corn  silage,   15  Ibs.  fodder  corn,  2*&   Ibs. 
bran,  3  Ibs.  gluten  meal,  ll/2   Ibs.  cottonseed  meal. 

(6y2)  30  Ibs.  corn  silage,  10  Ibs.  oats  straw,  2  Ibs.  oats, 
4  Ibs.  bran,  2  Ibs.  gluten  meal,  2  Ibs.  cottonseed  meal. 

(7)  20  Ibs.  corn  silage,  20  Ibs.  alfalfa,  3  Ibs.  corn. 

(8)  15   Ibs.   corn   silage,   20   Ibs.   alfalfa,   5   Ibs.   Kafir 
corn. 

(9)  20   Ibs.   corn   silage,    15    Ibs.   alfalfa,    4   Ibs.    corn, 
3  Ibs.  bran. 

(10)  40   Ibs.   corn   silage,    5   Ibs.   alfalfa,   3   Ibs.    corn, 
3  Ibs.  oats,  2  Ibs.  O.  P.  linseed  meal,  1  Ib.  cottonseed  meal. 

Tennessee  Experiment  Station:  30  Ibs.  silage,  10 
Ibs.  clover  or  cow  pea  hay,  5  Ibs.  wheat  bran,  3  Ibs.  of 
corn,  2  Ibs.  cotton  seed  meal. 

North  Carolina  Experiment  Station:  (1)  40  Ibs.  corn 
silage,  10  Ibs.  cottonseed  hulls,  5  Ibs.  cottonseed  meal. 

(2)  50    Ibs.    corn    silage,    5    Ibs.    orchard    grass    hay, 
4y2  Ibs.  cottonseed  meal. 

(3)  30  Ibs.   corn   silage,   10   Ibs.   alfalfa,   6  Ibs.   wheat 
bran,  5  Ibs.  cottonseed  hulls. 

(4)  40  Ibs.  corn  silage,  15  Ibs.  cow  pea  vine  hay. 

(5)  40  Ibs.  corn  silage,  6  Ibs.  wheat  bran,  6  Ibs.  field 
peas  ground. 

(6)  40  Ibs.  corn  silage,  4  Ibs.  cut  corn  fodder,  3  Ibs. 
ground   corn,   4   Ibs.   bran,   1   Ib.   cottonseed   meal    (ration 
fed  at  Biltmore  Estate  to  dairy  cows.     Silage  is  fed  to 
steers  and  cows,  and  corn,  peas,  teosinte,  cow  peas,  millet 
and  crimson  clover  are  used  as  silage  crops.    These  crops 
are  put  into  the  silo  in  alternate  layers.    "Will  never  stop 
using  the  silo  and  silage." 

South  Carolina:  30  Ibs.  corn  silage,  6  Ibs.  bran,  3 
Ibs.  cottonseed  meal,  12  Ibs.  cottonseed  hulls. 

Georgia  Experiment  Station:  40  Ibs.  corn  silage,  15 
Ibs.  cow  pea  hay,  5  Ibs.  bran. 


204 


A  FEEDER'S  GUIDE. 


Ontario  Agr.  College:  45  Ibs.  corn  silage,  6  Ibs.  clover 
hay,  8  Ibs.  bran,  2  Ibs.  barley. 

Nappan  Experiment  Station  (Canada) :  30  Ibs.  corn 
silage,  20  Ibs.  hay,  8  Ibs.  bran  and  meal. 

The  criticism  may.  properly  be  made  with  a  large 
number  of  the  rations  given  in  the  preceding,  that  it  is 
only  in  case  of  low  prices  of  grain  or  concentrated  feeds 
in  general,  and  with  good  dairy  cows,  that  it  is  possible 
to  feed  such  large  quantities  of  grain  profitably  as  those 
often  given.  In  the  central  and  northwestern  states  it 
will  not  pay  to  feed  grain  heavily  with  corn  at  fifty  cents 
a  bushel  and  oats  at  thirty  cents  a  bushel  or  more.  In 
times  of  high  prices  of  feeds,  it  is  only  in  exceptional 
cases  that  more  than  six  or  eight  pounds  of  concentrated 


AVERAGE  COMPOSITION   OF  SILAGE  CROPS    OF    DIFFERENT 
KINDS,    IN    PER   CENT. 


Water. 

Ash. 

Crude 
Protein 

Crude 
Fibre. 

Nitro- 
gen 
Free 

Extract 

Ei  her 
Extract 

Corn  Silage  — 
Mature  corn  

73.7 

1.6 

2.2 

6.5 

15.1 

.9 

Immature  corn  
Hars  removed 

79.1 

80  7 

1.4 
1.8 

1.7 
1.8 

6.0 
5.6 

11.0 
9.5 

.8 
6 

Clover  silage 

72  0 

2.6 

4.2 

8.4 

11.6 

1  2 

Soja  bean  silage 

74  2 

2.8 

4.1 

9.7 

6.9 

2  2 

Cow-pea  vine  silage.  . 
Field-pea  vine  silage. 
Corn  cannery  refuse- 
husks  

79.3 
50.0 

83.8 

2.9 

3.6 

.6 

2.7 

5.9 

1.4 

6.0 
13.0 

5.2 

7.6 
26.0 

7.9 

1.5 
1.6 

1  1 

Corn  cannery  refuse- 
cobs  

74.1 

.5 

1.5 

7.9 

14.3 

1  7 

Pea  cannery  refuse  .  . 
Sorghum  silage  

76.8 
76.1 

1.3 
1.1 

2.8 
.8 

6.5 

6.4 

11.3 
15.3 

1.3 
.3 

Corn-so  j  a  bean  silage 
Millet-soja  bean  silage 
Rye  silage  
Apple  pomace  silage.. 
Cow-pea  and  soja 
bean  mixed  
Corn  kernels  

76.0 
79.0 
80.8 
85.0 

69.8 
41.3 

2.4 

2.8 
1.6 
.6 

4.5 
1.0 

2.5 
2.8 
2.4 
1.2 

3.8 
6.0 

7.2 
7.2 
5.8 
3.3 

9.5 
1.5 

11.1 

7.  -2 
9.2 
8.8 

11.1 
46  6 

.8 
1.0 
.3 
1.1 

1.3 
3.6 

Mixed  grasses 
(rowen) 

18  4 

7  1 

10  1 

22  8 

36  0 

5  7 

Brewers'  grain  silage. 

69.8 

1.2 

6.6 

4.7 

15.6 

2.1 

ANALYSES  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS. 


205 


feeds  can  be  fed  with  economy  per  head  daily.  Some 
few  cows  can  give  proper  returns  for  more  than  this 
quantity  of  grain  even  when  this  is  high,  but  more  cows 
will  not  do  so.  The  farmer  should  aim  to  grow  protein 
foods  like  clover,  alfalfa,  peas,  etc.,  to  as  large  extent  as 
practicable,  and  thus  reduce  his  feed  bills. 

The  table  on  preceding  page  gives  actual  chemical  an- 
alyses of  the  products  mentioned  and  includes  the  entire 
100  per  cent  of  the  contents  and  weight.  The  following  table, 
compiled  by  the  Editors  of  Hoard's  Dairyman,  Fort  Atkin- 
son, Wis.,  shows  the  average  amount  of  digestible  nutri- 
ents in  the  more  common  American  fodders,  grains  and 
by-products,  and  is  the  table  that  should  be  used  in  formu- 
lating rations.  The  tables  give  the  amounts  of  digestible 
nutrients  contained  in  100  Ibs.  in  pounds,  and  the  figures 
can,  therefore,  be  taken  as  per  cents  in  figuring  out  the 
amount  of  digestible  nutrients  in  any  given  amount  of 
food  material,  and  it  is  by  such  methods  that  the  tables 
given  on  pages  211  to  215  are  obtained. 

Compiled  by  the  editors  of  Hoard's  Dairyman,  Fort  Atkin- 
son, Wis. 

ANALYSES    OF    FEEDING    STUFFS. 

TABLE    SHOWING    AVERAGE    AMOUNTS    OF    DIGESTIBLE    NUTRIENTS    IN     THE 
MORE    COMMON    AMERICAN     DODDERS,    GRAINS    AND  BY-PRODUCTS. 

(Compiled  by  the  Editors  of  Hoard's  Dairyman,  Fort  Atkinson,  Wis.) 


NAME   OF   FEED. 

DRY  MATTER  IN 
100  POUNDS. 

DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS   IN 
100   POUNDS. 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Ether 
Extract. 
(Crude 
Pat.) 

GREEN   FODDERS. 

Pasture  Grasses,  mixed  
Fodder  Corn  .        ...        ... 

Lbs. 
20.0 
20.7 
20.6 

29  2 

Lbs. 

2.5 
1.0 

0.6 
2  9 

Lbs. 

10.2 

11.6 
12.2 
14.8 
12.7 
8.7    • 
11.0 
18.9 
14.1 
8.1 
7.1 
7.3 

Lbs. 
0.5 
0.4 
0.4 
0.7 
0.5 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
0.4 
0.2 
0.2 

Sorghum  

Red  Clover 

Alfalfa 

28.2 
16.4 
24.9 
37.8 
23.4 
14.0 
16.0 
10.2 

3  .  9 
1.8 
3.2 
2.6 
2.1 
1.5 
1.8 
0.6 

Cow  Pea                        j  

Soja  Bean  
Oat  Fodder 

Rye  Fodder 

Rape 

Peas  and  Oats  

Beet  Pulp  

206 


A  FEEDER'S  GUIDE, 


NAME  OF   FEED. 

DRY  MATTER  IN 
100  POUNDS. 

DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS   IN 
100   POUNDS. 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Ether 
Extract 
(Crude  Pat) 

SILAGE. 

Corn.       ... 

Lbs. 

20.9 

26.4 
23.9 

28.0 
27  5 

Lbs. 
0.9 
1.3 
0.6 
2.0 
3.0 
1.5 
2.7 

2  5 
3.7 
1.7 
1.5 
6.8 
11.0 
6.2 
4.8 
10.8 
5.7 
2.4 
2.4 
4.5 
4.3 
9.2 
4.9 
3.5 
4.8 
2.8 
4.8 
12.9 
3.8 

0.7 
1.2 
0.6 
0.4 

Lbs. 
11.3 
14.0 
14.9 
13.5 
8.5 
8.6 
8.7 

34.6 
40.4 
32.4 
37.3 
35.8 
39.6 
46.6 
37.3 
38.6 
39.7 
47.8 
29.9 
51.7 
46.4 
36.8 
42.3 
41.8 
46.9 
43.4 
39.6 
47.5 
40.7 

41.2 
38.6 
40.6 
36.3 

Lbs. 
0.7 
0.7 
0.2 
1.0 
1.9 
0.9 
1.3 

1.2 
1.2 
0.7 
0.4 
1.7 
1.2 
1.5 
2.0 
1.1 
1.4     • 
0.7. 
0.9 
1.3 
1.5 
1.2 
1.4 
1.4 
1.0 
1.4 
1.6 
1.4 
1.2 

0.6 
0.8 
0.4 
0.4 

Corn,  Wisconsin  analyses.  . 
Sorghum. 

Red  Clover. 

Alfalfa 

Cow  Pea  
Soja  Bean  

20.7 
25.8 

57.8 
71.0 
59.5 
59.7 
84.7 
91.6 
85.2 
78.8 
89.3 
82.4 
87.7 
88.4 
92.3 
91.1 
85.4 
90.1 
87.5 
91.1 
86.8 
85.3 
88.7 
85.0 

85.8 
90.8 
92.9 
90.4 

DRY   FODDERS    AND    HAY. 

Corn  Fodder 

Corn  Fodder,  Wis.  analyses. 
Corn  Stover  
Sorghum  Fodder  
Red  Clover  
Alfalfa 

Barley  . 

Blue  Grass  .  . 

Cow  Pea  

Crab  Grass  

Johnson  Grass.  .  .  . 

Marsh  Grass  

Millet  

Oat  Hay 

Oat  and  Pea  Hay  
Orchard  Grass  
Prairie  Grass  
Red  Top  .  .  . 

Timothy 

Timothy  and  Clover  .  . 
Vetch.... 

White  Daisy  

STRAW. 

Barley 

Oat  .. 

Rye  .  .   . 

Wheat  

ANALYSES  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS. 


207 


NAME  OF  FEED. 

DRY  MATTER  IN 
i  |100  POUNDS, 

DIGESTIBLE    NUTRIENTS 
IN  100  POUNDS. 

fl 
1 

a 

AH 

aj 
o> 

ti 

0       *J 

g  0>rt 

"Ss^ 

|S| 

H     "* 

ROOTS  AND  TUBERS. 

Artichokes  

Lbs. 

20.0 
13.0 
13.5 
11.4 
9.1 
117 
21.1 
11.4 
9.5 
29.0 

89.1 
91.8 
24.3 
89.8 
87.4 
89.5 
87.3 
89.1 
89.0 
89.3 
90.9 
92.0 
88.0 
90.0 
90.0 
88.9 
34.6 
89.7 
91.8 
88.9 
-89.7 
85.2 
90.8 
90.8 
89.9 

Lbs. 
2.0 

1.2 

1.1 

0.8 
1.1 
1.6 
0.9 
1.0 
1.0 
0.9 

8.7. 
15.7 
3.9 
18.6 
7.7 
7.4 
22.0 
7.9 
6.4 
0.4 
7.4 
24.6 
32.1 
20.2 
23.3 
7.5 
5.5 
12.5 
37.2 
0.3 
15.6 
18.3 
20.6 
29.3 
28.2 

Lbs. 
16.8 

8.8 
10.2 
7.8 
5.4 
11.2 
16.3 
8.1 
7.2 
22.2 

65.6 
36.3 
9.3 
37.1 
49.2 
30.4 
33.4 
66.7 
63.0 
52.5 
59.8 
38.8 
41.2 
44.5 
50.7 
55.2 
21.7 
30.0 
16.9 
33.1 
38.3 
54.2 
17,1 
32.7 
40.1 

Lbs. 

0.2 
0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.1 
0.2 
0.1 
0.2 
0.2 
0.3 

1.6 
5.1 
1.4 
1.7 
1.8 
1.9 
5.4 
4.3 
3.5 
0.3 
4.6 
11.5 
2.5 
8.8 
2.7 
6.8 
2.3 
17.3 
8.4 
1.7 
10.5 
1.1 
29.0 
7.0 
2.8 

Beets,  common  

Beets,  sugar 

Carrots  .... 

Mangels  

Parsnips  

Potatoes  

Rutabagas  

Turnips 

Sweet  Potatoes 

GRAINS  AND  BY-PRODUCTS. 

Barley            .         .    . 

Brewers'  Grains  dry 

Brewers'  Grains,  wet. 

Malt  Sprouts  

Buckwheat  

Buckwheat  Bran 

Buckwheat  Middlings  

Corn           ...       ... 

Corn  and  Cob  —  Meal. 

Corn  Cob  

Corn  Bran  

Atlas  Gluten  Meal  

Gluten  Meal  

Germ  Oil  Meal 

Gluten  Feed 

Hominy  Chop  .       

Starch  Feed,  wet  

Cotton  Seed 

Cotton  Seed  Meal  ....         ... 

Cotton  Seed  Hulls  

Cocoanut  Meal  

Cow  Peas        

Flax  Seed  

Oil  Meal  old  process.       

Oil  Meal  new  process  

208 


A  FEEDER'S  GUIDE. 


NAME   OF  FEED. 

DRY  MATTER  IN 
100  POUNDS. 

DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS 
IN    100   POUNDS. 

i 

g 

PH 

oo 
0 

M 
^ 

2x  2 
•5HO 

H     * 

GRAIN  AND  BY-PRODUCTS. 

Cleveland  Oil  Meal 

Lbs. 

89.6 

84.8 
86.0 
8QO 

Lbs. 

32.1 
7.8 
8.9 
9.2 

Lbs. 

25.1 
57.1 

45.0 
47.3 
46.9 
38.4 
51.8 
50.1 
67.6 
50.3 
692 
38.6 
53.0 
50.0 

Lbs. 

2.6 
2.7 
3.2 
4.2 
2.8 
5.1 
0,7 
3.0 
1.1 
2.0 
1.7 
3.0 
3.4 
3.8 

Kaffir  Corn  

Millet  

Oats  

Oat  Feed  or  Shorts  
Oat  Dust  

92.3 
93.5 
895 

12.5 
8.9 
16.8 
9.4 
9.9 
11.5 
10.2 
12.6 
12.8 
12.2 

Peas  

Quaker  Dairy  Feed.  . 

92.5 

88.4 
88.4 
89.5 
88.1 
87.9 
88.2 

Rve 

Rye  Bran 

Wheat 

Wheat  Bran  

Wheat  Middlings  

Wheat  Shorts  

WEIGHT   OF    CONCENTRATED    FEEDS. 


Kind  of  Feed. 

One  Quart 
Equals 

One  Pound 
Equals 

Cotton  Seed  Meal 

1  4  pounds 

0  71  quarts 

Linseed  Meal,  old  process  .  .  . 
Gluten  Meal  

LI        " 

18        " 

0^90 
055       ' 

Gluten  Feed  

13 

071        ' 

Germ  Oil  Meal  .    ... 

14 

071        ' 

Brewers'  Grains  

06 

170        ' 

Malt  Sprouts 

06 

170        ' 

Wheat  Bran  

05 

200        ' 

Wheat  Middlings,  standard  .  . 
Wheat  Middlings,  flour  
Corn  Kernels  

0.8 
1.2 
17 

1.25 
0.83 
0  60        ' 

Corn  IVteal 

15        ' 

070        ' 

Corn  and  Cob  Meal  

1.4 

067 

Corn  Bran    .       .    . 

0.5 

200 

Oat  Kernels  

1  1 

090 

Oats  (ground)  

0.7 

140 

Wheat  Kernels  

1.9 

0.53 

H-O  Dairy  Feed 

07 

143        " 

Quaker  Dairy  Feed 

10        " 

100       " 

Victor  Corn  and  Oat  Feed  .  .  . 

0.7 

1.43       " 

SOILING  CROPS. 


209 


SOILING   CROP   ADAPTED   TO    NORTHERN    NEW    ENGLAND 

STATES.     (Lindsey.) 

'    (For  10  cows'  entire  soiling.) 


Kind. 

Seeds  Per  Acre. 

Time  of 
Seeding-. 

Area. 

Time  of  Cutting-. 

Rye  

2bu  .  . 

Sept.  10-15 

y2  acre 

May  20  -  May  30 

Wheat  . 

2  bu 

"     10-15 

y2     " 

June  1  -  June  15 

Red  clover  

Grass  and        ) 
clover  1 

Vetch  and       j 
oats) 

Peas  and 
oats 

Barnyard 

201bs  
y2  bu.  red  top 
1  pk.  timothy 
lOlbs.red  clo. 
3*bu.  oats  
50  Ibs.  vetch. 
50    " 
l^bu.  Can'da 
l^bu.  oats  .  . 

1  peck 

Jul.  15-Aug.  1 
Sept. 

April  20 
"      30 
[    April  20 

"      30 
May  10 

1A     " 

%     " 

1A    " 

y*  " 

X    " 

l/2         ' 

June  15  -  June  25 
June  .15  -  June  30 

June  25  -  July  10 
July  10  -  July  20 
June  25  -  July  10 

July  10  -  July  20 
July  25  -  Aug.  10 

millet 

"    25 

r|       « 

Aug.  10  -  Aug.  20 

Sojabean  (me- 
dium green) 

Corn  ] 

18  quarts  
18 

"    20 
"     20 

8  : 

Aug.  25  -  Sept.  15 
Aug.  25  -  Sept.  10 

Hungarian...  . 
Barley  and      I 
peas  1 

18  "  .... 
Ibu  
ll/2  bu.  peas  . 
iy2  bu.  barley 

"    30 
July  15 

]      Aug.  5 

Vs     ' 

l/2         ' 
1 

Sept.  10  -  Sept.  20 
Sept.  20  -  Sept.  30 

Oct.    1  -  Oct.    20 

TIME  OF   PLANTING   AND   FEEDING   SOILING    CROPS. 


(Phelps.) 


Kind  of  Fodder. 

Amount 
of  Seed 
Per  Acre. 

Approxi- 
mate Time 
of  Seeding. 

Approximate 
Time  of  Feeding. 

1     Rye  fodder  .   .       . 

2y2  to  3  bu. 

Sept.  1 

May  10-20 

2     W'heat  fodder 

2y2  to3  bu 

Sept  5-10 

May  20-June  5 

3     Clover   

20  Ibs. 

July  20-30 

June  5-15 

4.    Grass       (from     grass 

June  15-25 

5.  '  1 
6      >Oats  and  peas 

2  bu   each 

(  April  10 
•<       "      20 

June  25-July  10 
July  10-20 

7.'     1 
8     Hungarian            .  . 

l1/^  bn. 

I      "      30 
June  1 

July  20-Aug.  1 
Aug.  1-10 

9     Clover  rowen  (from  3) 

Aug.  10-20 

10.    Soja  beans  (from  3)  .  . 

1  bushel 
1       " 

May  25 
June  5-10 

Aug.  20-Sept.  5 
Sept.  5-20 

12.    Rowen     grass     (from 

Sept.  20-30 

2  bu    each 

Aug   5-10 

Oct.  1-30 

The  dates  given  in  the  table  apply  to  Central  Connecticut  and 
regions  under  approximately  similar  conditions. 

14 


210 


A  FEEDER'S  GUIDE. 


COST   OF   A   POUND   OF   DIGESTIBLE   DRY    MATTER    IN 
DIFFERENT    FEEDING    STUFFS. 


FEEDS. 


Corn  meal $0 . 80 

Cob  meal  78 

Oats .90 

Provender .85 

Quaker  dairy  feed 85 

H-O  dairy  feed   1.00 

Corn  and  oat  feed .85 

Hominy  chop .90 

Wheat  bran .85 

Wheat  middlings .95 

Mixed  (wheat)  feed  .90 

Cottonseed   meal 1 . 20 

Linseed  meal,  old  process 1.30 

Linseed  meal,  new  process 1.30 

Flax  meal 1.30 

Chicago  gluten  meal 1 . 20 

Cream  gluten  meal 1 . 20 

King  gluten  meal 1 . 20 

Buffalo  gluten  feed 1 . 00 

Diamond  gluten  feed 1 . 00 


Cost  Per 
100  Lbs. 


Total 
Digestible 
Nutrients. 


Lbs. 

79.5 
71.3 
67.0 
72.3 
60-.  9 
63.7 
70.4 
88.8 
57,9 
70.6 
64.8 
80.3 
77.1 
74.5 
75.5 
78.9 
81.1 
86.7 
80.1 
82.3 


1.57 
1.21 
1.01 


47 
35 
39 

50 
69 

1.74 
1.72 
1.52 
1.48 
1.38 
1.25 


1.22 


READY  REFERENCE  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.     211 

IN   VARYING   WEIGHTS   OF   FEED   IN   POUNDS. 

NOTE. — These  tables  save  calculations  of  percentages,  since  the  weights 
and  contents  being-  given  in  pounds,  it  is  only  necessary  to  find  the  kind  and 
desired  amount  of  a  certain  feed,  and  the  table  gives  the  exact  food  contents 
in  pounds,  as  in  the  first  table,  15  Ibs.  of  Green  Oat  Fodder  contains  5.7  Ibs. 
of  dry  matter,  0.35  Ibs.  of  protein  and  3.1  Ibs.  carbohydrates. 


POUNDS   OF 
FODDER. 

Total  Dry 
Matter. 

Protein.  I 

Carbohy- 
drates, etc. 

>> 

Si 

$& 

sa 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates, etc  . 

Total  Dry 
Matter. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates, etc. 

Grasses. 

Pasture  Grass,  1:4.8 

Timothy 
1.0 
1.9 
3.8 
5.8 
7.7 
9.6 
11.5 
13.4 
15.4 

Grass,  1:14.3 

Ky.  Blue  Grass,  1:9.2 

2#. 

0.5 
1.0 
2.0 
3.0 
4.0 
5.0 
6.0 
7.0 
8.0 

0.06 
0.12 
0.23 

0.35 
0.46 
0.58 
0.69 
0.81 
0.92 

0.3 
0.6 
1.1 
1.7 
2.2 
2.8 
3.3 
3.9 
4.4 

0.04 
0.08 
0.15 
0.23 
0.30 
0.38 
0.45 
0.53 
0.60 

0.5 
1.1 
2.1 
3.2 
4.3 
5.4 
6.4 
7.5 
14.0 

0.9 
1.8 
3.5 
5.2 
7.0 

;s.7 

10.5 
12.2 
14.0 

0.05 
0.10 

0.20 
0.30 
0.40 
0.50 
0.60 
0.70 
0.80 

0.5 
0.9 
1.8 

It 

4.7 
5.5 
6.4 
7.3 

5 

10     ... 
15     

20     
25     
30     
35     
40     

Green  Fodders. 

GreenFodderCorn,1:11.7 

Green  Oat  Fodder,  1:8.  7 

Green  Rye  Fodder,  1:7.2 

2^  
5     
10     ... 

0.5 
1.0 
2.1 
3.1 
4.1 
5.2 
6.2 
7.2 
8.3 

0.03 
0.06 
0.11 
0.17 
0.22 
0.28 
0.33 
0.39 
0.44 

0.3 
0.6 
1.3 
1.9 
2.6 
3.2 
3.9 
4.5 
5.2 

0.9 
1.9 
3.8 
5.7 
7.6 
9.5 
11.3 
13.2 
15.1 

0.06 
0.12 
0.24 
0.36 
0.48 
0.60 
0.72 
0.84 
0.96 

0.5 
1.0 
2.1 
3.1 
4.2 
5.2 
6.2 
7.3 
8.3 

0.6 
1.2 
2.3 
3.5 
4.7 
5.9 
7.0 
8.2 
9.4 

0.05 
0.11 
0.21 
0.32 
0.42 
0.52 
0.63 
0.74 
0.84 

0.4 
0.7 
1.5 
2.3 
3.0 
3.8 
4.5 
5.3 
6.0 

15     
20     
25     
30 

35     
40     

Green  Fodders. 

Oats  and  Peas,  1:4.2 

Barley  and  Peas,  1:3.  2 

Red  Clover  (green),  1:5.  7 

Zl/2. 

0.5 
1.1 
2.1 
3.2 
4.3 
5.3 
6.4 
7.5 
8.5 

0.07 
0.14 
0.27 
0.41 
0.54 
0.68 
0.81 
0.95 
1.08 

0.3 
0.5 
1.1" 
1.7 
2.3 
2.9 
3.4 
4.0 
4.6 

0.5 
1.0 
2.1 
3.1 
4.1 
5.2 
6.2 
7.2 
8.2 

0.07 
0.14 
0.28 
0.42 
0.56 
0.70 
0.84 
0.96 
1.12 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.4 
1.8 
2.3 
2.7 
3.2 
3.6 

0.7 
1.5 
2.9 
4.4 
5.9 
7.3 
8.8 
10.2 
11.7 

0.07 
0.15 
0.29 
0.44 
0.58 
0.73 
0.87 
1.02 
1.16 

0.4 
0.8 
1.6 
2.5 
3.3 
4.1 
4.9 
5.7 
6.6 

5      

10      

15      
20 

25     
30     . 

n  

Green  Fodders. 

Corn  Silage,  1:14.3 

CornStoverSilage,  1:16.8 

Clover  Silage,  1:4.7 

2^  

0.7 
1.3 
2.6 
3.9 
5.3 
6.6 
7.9 
9.2 
10.5 

0.03 
0.06 
0.12 
0.18 
0.24 
0.30 
0.36 
0.42 
0.48 

0.4 
0.8 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
5.3 
6.2 
7.1 

0.5 
1.0 
1.9 
2.9 
3.9 
4.8 
5.8 
6.8 
7.7 

0.02 
0.03 
0.06 
0.09 
0.12 
0.15 
0.18 
0.21 
0.24 

0.3 
0.5 
1.0 
1.5 
2.0 
2.5 
3.0 
3.5 
4.0 

0.7 
1.4 
2.8 
4.2 
5.6 
7.0 
8.*4 
9.8 
11.2 

0.07 
0.14 
0.27 
0.41 
0.54 
0.68 
0.81 
0.95 
1.08 

0.3 
0.6 
1.3 
.1.9 
2.6 
3.2 
3.9 
4.5 
5.1 

5 

10 

15     
20        

25     

30     

35 

40     

212     READY  REFERENCE  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


VARYING    WEIGHTS    OF    FEED    IN     POUNDS. CONTINUED. 


POUNDS   OF 
FODDER. 

Total  Dry 
Matter. 

Protein,  i 

Carbohy 
drates,  etc  . 

Total  Dry 
Matter. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates, etc. 

Total  Dry 
Matter. 

Protein. 

il 

II 
o*| 

Roots 

Potatoes,  1:7.3 

Sugar  Beets,  1:6.8 

Carrots,  1:9.6 

2#  
5     
10     

0.5 
1.1 
2.1 
3.2 
4.2 
5.3 
6.3 
7.4 
8.4 

0.02 

0.05 
0.09 
0.14 
0.18 
0.23 
0.27 
0,32 
0.36 

0.4 
0.8 
1.6 
2.3 
3.1 
3.9 
4.7 
5.4 
6.2 

0.3 

0.7 
1.4 
2.0 
2.7 
3.4 
4.1 
4.7 
5.4 

0.04 
0.08 
0.16 
0.24 
0.32 
0.40 
0.48 
0.56 
0.64 

0.3 
0.5 
1.1 
1.7 
2.2 
2.7 
3.3 
3.8 
4.4 

0.3 

0.5 

1.1 

1.6 
2.3 
2.9 
3.4 

4.0 
4.6 

0.03 
0.05 
0.10 
0.15 
0.20 
0.25 
0.30 
0.35 
0.40 

0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.4 
1.9 
2.4 
2.9 
3.4 
3.8 

15     
20     
25     
30     
35     

40     

Roots 

Mangel  Wurtzels,  1:4.9 

Rutabagas,  1:8.6 

Turnips,  1:7.7 

2V2 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.4 
1.8 
2.3 
2.7 
3.2 
3.6 

0.03 
0.06 
0.11 
0.17 
0.22 
0.28 
0.33 
0.39 
0.44 

0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.8 
1.1 
1.4 
1.6 
1.9 
2.2 

0.3 
0.5 
1.1 
1.6 
2.3 
2.9 
3.4 
4.0 
4.6 

0.03 
0.05 
0.10 
0.15 
0.20 
0.25 
0.30 
0.35 
1.40 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.3 
1.7 
2  2 
2^6 
3.0 
3.4 

0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.4 
1.9 
2.4 
2.9 
3.3 
3.8 

0.03 
0.05 
0.10 
0.15 
0.20 
0.25 
0.30 
0.35 
0.40 

0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.2 
1.5 
1.9 
2.3 
2.7 
3.1 

5 

10 

15     .   . 

20     .    . 

25     
30     

35     

40     

Milk 

Skim  Milk,  1:2.0 

Buttermilk,  1:1.7 

Whey,  1:8.7 

2^  
5 

0.2 
0.5 
0.9 
1.4 
1.9 
2.4 
28 
3.2 
3.7 

0.07 
0.15 
0.29 
0.44 
0.58 
0.73 
0.87 
1.02 
1.16 

0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
0.9 
1.2 
1.6 
1.8 
2.1 
2.4 

0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.5 
2.0 
2.5 
3.0 
3.5 
4.0 

0.10 
0.19 
0.38 
0.57 
0.76 
0.95 
1.14 
1.33 
1.52 

0.2 
0.3 
0.6 
1.0 
1.3 
1.6 
1.9 
2.2 
2.6 

0.2 
0.3 
0.6 
0.9 
1.2 
1.5 
1.9 
2.2 
2.5 

0.02 
0.03 
0.06 
0.09 
0.12 
0.15 
0.18 
0.21 
0.24 

0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.8 
1.0 
1.3 
1.6 
1.8 
2.1. 

10     
15    
20     . 

25    
30    
35    
40    

Hays 

Mixed  Hay,   1:10.0 

Timothy  Hay,  1:16.5 

Ky.BlueGrassHay,1:106 

2^  

2.1 
4.2 

6.4 
8.5 
10.6 
12.7 
;4.8 
16.9 
21.2 

0.11 
0.22 
0.33 
0.44 
0.55 
0.66 
0.77 
0.88 
1.10 

1.1 
2.2 
3.3 
4.4 
5.5 
6.6 
7.7 
8.8 
11.0 

.22 
.43 
.65 
.87 
1.09 
1.30 
1.52 
1.74 
2.17 

0.07 
0.15 
0.21 
0.28 
0.35 
0.42 
0.49 
0.56 
0.70 

1.2 
2.3 
3.5 

4.6 

5.8 
6.9 
8.1 
9.2 
11.6 

1.9 
3.7 
5.6 
7.4 
9.2 
11.1 
13.0 
14.8 
18.5 

0.09 
0.19 
0.28 
0.37 
0.46 
0.56 
0.65 
0.74 
0,93 

1.0 
2.0 
3.0 
3.9 
4.9 
5.9 
6.9 
7.9 
9.9 

5     ... 

iy2  

10     

i2y2 

15    
17^.. 

20     
25     

READY  REFERENCE  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.     213 


VARYING     WEIGHTS     OF     FEED    IN    POUNDS — CONTINUED. 


POUNDS   OF 
FODDER. 

Total  Dry 
Matter. 

Protein. 

't1 

•  &  * 

°i 

h 

Q£ 

P 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates, etc. 

fj 

as 

Is 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates, etc. 

Hays 

Oat  Hay,  1:9.9 

i  Oat  and  Pea  Hay,  1:4.1 

Hungarian,  1:10.0 

•2y2  

2.3 
4.6 
6.8 
9.1 
11.4 
13.7 
16.0 
18.2 
22.8 

0.10 
0.21 
0.31 

0.41 
0.51 
0.62 
0.72 
0.82 
1.03 

1.0 

2.0 
3.0 
4.0 
5.1 
6.1 
7.1 
8.1 
10.2 

2.2 
4.4 

6.6 
8.9 
11.1 
13.3 
15.5 
17.7 
22.1 

0.28 
0.56 
0.84 
1.12 
1.40 
1.68 
1.96 
2.24 
2.80 

1.2 
2.3 
3.5 
4.6 
5.8 
6.9 
8.1 
9.2 
11.6 

2.1 
4.2 
6.3 
8.4 
10.4 
12.5 
14.6 
16.7 
20.8 

0.12 
0.25 

0.37 
0.49 
0.62 
0.74 
0.86 
0.98 
1.23 

1.2 
2.4 
3.5 

4.9 
6.2 

7.4 
8.6 
9.8 
12.3 

5 

iy2 

10 

12  y2 

15 

17^ 

20     
25     

Hays,  etc. 

Red  Clover  Hay,  1:5,9 

Alsike  Clover  Hay,  1:5.5 

Oat  Straw,  1:38.3 

2<4  
5     

2.1 
4.2 

6.4 
8.5 
10.6 
12.7 
14.8 
16.9 
21.2 

0.18 
0.36 
0.53 
0.71 
0.89 
1.07 
1.24 
1.42 
1.78 

1.0 
2.1 
3.2 
4.2 
5.2 
6.3 
7.3 
8.3 
10.5 

2.3 
4.5 
6.8 
9.0 
11.3 
13.5 
15.8 
18.1 
22.6 

0.21 
0.42 
0.63 
0.84 
1.05 
1.26 
1.47 
1.68 
2.10 

1.2 
2.3 
3.5 
4.6 
5.8 
6.9 
8.1 
9.2 
11.6 

2.3 
4.6 
6.8 
9.1 
11.4 
13.9 
16.0 
18.2 
22.7 

0.03 
0.06 
0.09 
0.12 
0.15 
0.18 
0.21 
0.24 
0.30 

1.2 
2.3 
3.5 
4.6 
5.8 
6.9 
8.1 
9.2 
11.5 

iy2  

10     

12?^ 

15     
17/.  

9Q       

25     ....'.... 

Dry  Fodder 

Corn  Fodder,  1:14.3 

Corn  Stover,  1:23.6 

Wheat  Straw,  1:95.0 

2^  

1.4 

2  9 
4.3 
5.8 

7.2 
8.7 
10.1 
11.6 
14.5 

0.06 
0.13 
0.19 
0.25 
0.32 
0.38 
0.44 
0.50 
0.63 

0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
5.4 
6.2 
7.1 
8.9 

1.5 
3.0 
4.5 
6.0 
7.5 
9.0 
10.5 
12.0 
15.0 

0.04 
0.07 
0.11 
0.14 
0.18 
0.21 
0.25 
0.28 
0.35 

0.8 
1.7 
2.5 
3.3 
4.1 
5.0 
5.8 
6.6 
8.3 

2.3  0.01 
4.5  0.02 
6.8  0.03 
9.0  0.04 
11.3  0.05 
13.5  0.06 
15.8  0.07 
18.1  0.08 
22.6  0.10 

0.9 
1.9 
2.8 
3.7 
4.6 
5.6 
6.5 
7.4 
9.3 

5     

iy2 

10     

1214 

15     

17^. 

20     

25     

Grains 

Corn  Meal,  1:11.3 

Corn  &  Cob  Meal,  1:13.9 

Oats,  1:6.2 

1A" 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.7 
2.6 
3.4 
4.3 
6.4 
8.5 

0.02 
0.03 
0.06 
0.13 
0.19 
0.25 
0.32 
0.48 
0.63 

0.2 
0.4 
0.7 
1.4 
2.1 
2.9 
3.6 
5.4 
7.1 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.7 
2.6 
3.4 
4.3 
6.4 
8.5 

0.01 
0.02 
0.05 
0.10 
0.14 
0.19 
0.24 
0.36 
0.48 

0.2 
0.3 
0.7 
1.3 
2.0 
2.7 
3.4 
5.1 
6.7 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
8.9 

0.02 
0.05 
0.09 
0.18 
0.28 
0.37 
0.46 
0.69 
0.92 

0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
1.1 
1.7 
2.3 
2.8 
4.3 
5.7 

y2  

i 

9 

3     

4 

5     
TJ4.-. 

10    

214  READY  REFERENCE  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


VARYING    WEIGHTS     OF     FEED     IN     POUNDS CONTINUED. 


POUNDS  OF 
FODDER. 

£?•• 

2| 

II 

c    1 

3 

1 

Carbohy- 
drates, etc. 

Total  Dry 

Matter. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates, etc. 

bjj 

Q£ 

cita 

Is 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates, etc. 

By  Products. 

Barley,  1:8.9 

arley  Screenings,  1:7.7 

Wheat  Bran,  1:3.8 

1A- 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
8.9 

0.02 
0.04 
0.09 
0.17 
0.26 
0.35 
0.44 
0.65 
0.87 

0.2 
0.3 
0.7 
1.4 
2.1 
2.8 
3.5 
5.2 
6,.  9 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.6 
3.5 
4.4 
6.6 
8.8 

0.02 
0.04 

0.09 
0.17 
0.26 
0.34 
0.43 
0.65 
0.86 

0.2 
0.3 

0.7 
1.3 
2.0 
2.7 
3.3 
5.0 
6.6 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.6 
3.5 
4.4 
6.6 
8.8 

0.03 
0.06 
0.12 
0.24 
0.36 
0.48 
0.60 
0.90 
1.20 

0.1 
0.2 
0.5. 
1.0 
1.4 
1.8 
2.3 
3.4 
4.<i 

y*  
i  .    .  .. 

2     

3         

4     

5     

ll/2. 

10     

By  Products. 

Wheat  Middlings,  1:4.6 

Wheat  Screenings,  1:5.2 

Red-dog  Flour,  1:3.3 

VA 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.6 
3.5 
4.4 
6.6 
8.8 

0.03 
0.06 
0.13 
0.25 
0.38 
0.50 
0.63 
0.94 
1.25 

0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
1.2 
1.7 
2.3 
2.9 
4.4 
5.8 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.5 
4.4 
6.6 
8.8 

0.02 
0.05 
0.10 
0.20 
0.29 
0.39 
0.49 
0.74 
0.98 

0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.5 
2.0 
2.5 
3.8 
5.1 

0.2 
0.5 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.6 
6.8 
9.1 

0.04 
0.09 
0.18 
0.36 
0.53 
0.71 
0.89 
1.34 
1.78 

0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
1.2 
1.7 
2.3 
2.9 
4.4 
5.8 

y,  
\  "'.'.'....'.. 
2 

3     .    . 

4     . 

5     

1V2.. 

10     

By  Products. 

Rye,  1:7.8 

Rye  Bran,  1:5.1 

Cottonseed  Meal,  1:1.0 

SI  

0.2 
0.4 

0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.5 
4.4 
6.6 
8.8 

0.02 
0.04 
0.09 
0.18 
0.27 
0.36 
0.46 
0.67 
0.89 

0.2 
0.3 
0.7 
1.4 
2.1 
2.8 
3.5 
5.2 
6.9 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.5 
4.4 
6.6 
8.8 

0.03 
0.06 
0.12 
0.25 
0.37 
0.49 
0.62 
0.92 
1.23 

0.2 
0.3 
0.6 
1.3 
1.9 
2.5 
3.1 
4.6 
6.3 

0.2 
0.5 
0.9 
1.8 
2.9 
3.7 
4.6 
6.9 
9.2 

0.10 
0.20 
0.40 
0.80 
1.20 
1.60 
2.00 
3.00 
4.00 

0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.2 
1.6 
2.0 
3.0 
4.0 

1 

2 

3 
4         

5            .  .   . 

iy2  

10     

By  Products. 

Cottonseed  Hulls,  

Linseed  Meal  o.  p.,  1:1.5 

Linseed  Meal  n.  p.  ,1:1.3 

54  

y*  

0.2 
0.4 
0  9 



0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.7 
1.1 
1.5 
1.8 
2.7 
3.7 

0.2 
0.5 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.9 
6.8 
9.0 

0.08 
0.15 
0.31 
0.62 
0.92 
1.23 
1.54 
2.31 
3.08 

0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.4 
1.8 
2.3 
3.4 
4.6 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
8.9 

0.08 
0.16 
0.32 
0.65 
0.97 
1.30 
1.62 
2.43 
3.24 

0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.3 
1.7 
2.1 
3.2 
4.2 

2 

1  8 

3     
4     

2.7 
3  6 

.... 

5     

4.5 

7/2  

10     

6.7 
8  ft. 

READY  REFERENCE  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.     215 


VARYING    WEIGHTS    OF     FEED     IN     POUNDS — CONTINUED. 


POUNDS    OF 
FODDER 

^± 

Q  0) 

"3  -5 

Is 

Protein. 

&S 
2® 

If 

ll 

*a 

Total  Dry 

Matter. 

Protein 

Carbohy- 
drates, etc. 

Total  Dry 
Matter. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates, etc. 

By  Products 

Flax  Meal,  1:1.4 

Gluten  Meah  Chi.  >1:1.5 

Gluten  Meal  (Cr'm.)1:1.7 

VA. 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.9 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
8.9 

0.08 
0.16 
0.32 

0.64 
0.96 
1.28 
1.60 
2.40 
3.21 

0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.3 
1.7 
2.2 
3.3 
4.3 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.6 
3.5 
4.4 
6.6 
8.8 

0.08 
0.16 
0.32 
0.64 
0.96 
1.28 
1.60 
2.40 
3.21 

0.1 
0.2 

0.5 
0.9 
1.4 
1.9 
13 
3.5 
4.7 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
9.0 

0.07 
0.15 
0.30 
0.59 
0.89 
1.19 
1.49 
2.23 
2.97 

0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
1.5 
2.1 
2.6 
3.9 
5.1 

y2  

2 

3     

4 

5 

7}4  
10     

By  Products 

RlutenFd.'  Buffalo  )1:2.  4 

Hominy  Chop,  1:9.2 

Dried  Brewers'  G'r,  1:3.0 

l/4.. 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.8 
9.0 

0.06 
0.12 
0.23 
0.47 
0.70 
0.93 
1.17 
1.74 
2.33 

0.1 
0.3 
0.6 
1.1 
1.7 
2.3 
2.8 
4.3 
5.9 

0.2 
0.5 
0.9 
1.8 
2.8 
3.7 
4.6 
6.9 
9.2 

0.02 
0.04 
0.09 
0.17 
0.26 
0.35 
0.44 
0.65 
0.87 

0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.6 
2.4 
3.2 
4.0 
6.0 
8.0 

0.2 
0.5 
0.9 
1.8 
2.8 
3.7 
4.6 
6.9 
9.2 

0.04 
0.08 
0.16 
0.31 
0.47 
0.63 
0.79 
1.18 
1.57 

0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
0.9 
1.4 
1.9 
2.4 
3.5 
4.7 

34.  :.::... 

2 

3 

4 
5 

iy2  

10     

By  Products 

Atlas  Gluten  Meal,  1:2.  6 

Malt  Sprouts,  1:2.2 

Pea  Meal,  1:3.2 

y. 

0.2 

0.5 
0.9 
1.8 
2  8 
3.7 
4.6 
6.9 
9.2 

0.06 
0.12 
0.25 
0.49 
0.74 
0.98 
1.23 
1.85 
2.46 

0.2 
0.3 
0.6 
1.3 
1.9 
2.6 
3.2 
4.9 
6.5 

0.2 

0.4 
0.9 
1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
9.0 

0.05 
0.09 
0.19 
0.37 
0.56 
0.74 
0.93 
1.40 
1.86 

0.1 
0.2 
0.4 
0.8 
1.2 
1.6 
2.0 
3.0 
4.0 

0.2 
0.4 
0.9 

1.8 
2.7 
3.6 
4.5 
6.7 
9.0 

0.04 
0.08 
0.17 
0.33 
0.50 
0.67 
0.84 
1.26 
1.68 

0.1 
0.3 
0.5 
1,1 

1.6 

2.1 
2.7 
4.0 
5.3 

l/2. 

1        ... 

2     
3     

4     

5 

754  •  , 

10    

CONCLUSION. 

In  conclusion  we  desire  to  state  that  the  object  of 
this  book  is  to  place  before  the  farmer,  dairyman  and 
stockman  such  information  as  will  be  valuable  and  prac- 
tical, in  as  concise  and  plain  a  manner  as  possible,  and  to 
make  a  plea  in  behalf  of  the  silo  as  an  improver  of  the 
financial  condition  of  the  farmer.  That  the  silo  is  a  prime 
factor  in  modern  agriculture  is  no  longer  a  matter  of 
doubt.  The  silo  is  not  the  sum  total  in  itself,  but  as  an 
adjunct,  and,  in  the  case  of  dairying,  a  necessary  adjunct 
to  successful  and  profitable  methods,  its  value  is  difficult 
to  overestimate. 

One  of  the  greatest  values  of  the  silo  is  that  as  an 
innovation  it  becomes  a  stepping-stone  to  better  methods 
in  general;  it  stimulates  its  owner  and  spurs  him  on  to 
see  just  how  good  and  far-reaching  results  he  can  obtain 
from  his  revised  system  of  management.  It  invites  a 
little  honest  effort,  and  coupled  with  this  it  never  fails. 
It  enables  its  owner  not  only  to  do  what  he  has  been 
unable  to  do  before,  but  things  he  has  done  without  its 
help  the  silo  enables  him  to  do  at  less  cost  than  before. 
The  solution  of  the  problem  of  cost  of  manufacture  is 
necessary  to  every  successful  producer,  and  as  the  propo- 
sition is  constantly  changing,  the  solutions  of  our  fore- 
fathers, Or  even  of  a  generation  ago,  no  longer  avail.  The 
silo  is  not  an  enticing  speculation  by  means  of  which 
something  can  be  gotten  out  of  nothing,  but  a  sound  busi- 
ness proposition,  and  has  come  to  stay.  The  voices  of 
thousands  of  our  best  farmers  and  dairymen  sing  its 
praises,  because  it  has  brought  dollars  into  their  pockets, 
and  increased  enjoyment  to  them  in  their  occupations  and 
their  homes. 

Have  you  cows?  Do  you  feed  stock?  Do  you  not  need 
a  silo?  Is  it  not  worthy  of  your  best  thought  and  con- 
sideration? You  owe  it  to  yourself  to  make  the  most  you 
can  out  of  the  opportunities  before  you.  DO  IT  NOW! 

216 


DEFINITION  OF  TERMS  USED.  217 

GLOSSARY. 

Ad  libitum.  At  pleasure;  in  case  of  feeding  farm  ani- 
mals, all  they  will  eat  of  a  particular  feeding  stuff. 

Albuminoids.  A  group  of  substances  of  the  highest 
importance  in  feeding  farm  animals,  as  they  furnish  the 
material  from  which  flesh,  blood,  skin,  wool,  casein  of 
milk,  and  other  animal  products  are  manufactured.  An- 
other name  for  albuminoids  is  flesh-forming  substances 
or  protein. 

Ash.  The  portion  of  a  feeding  stuff  which  remains 
when  it  is  burned,  the  incombustible  part  of  foods.  The 
ash  of  feeding  stuffs  goes  to  make  the  skeleton  of  young 
animals,  and  in  the  case  of  milch  cows  a  portion  thereof 
goes  into  the  milk  or  milk  ash. 

Bacteria.  Microscopic  vegetable  organisms  usually  in 
the  form  of  a  jointed  rod-like  filament,  and  found  in  putre- 
fying organic  infusions.  They  are  widely  diffused  in 
nature,  and  multiply  with  marvelous  rapidity.  Certain 
species  are  active  agents  in  fermentation,  while  others 
appear  to  be  the  cause  of  certain  infectious  diseases. 

Balanced  ration.  A  combination  of  feeding  stuffs, 
containing  the  various  nutrients  in  such  proportions  and 
amounts  as  will  nurture  the  animals  for  twenty-four  hours, 
with  the  least  waste  of  nutrients. 

By-Products.  A  secondary  product  of  an  industry; 
cottonseed  meal  is  a  by-product  of  the  cotton  oil  industry; 
skim  milk  and  butter  milk  are  by-products  of  butter 
making. 

Carbohydrates.  A  group  of  nutrients  rich  in  carbon 
and  containing  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in  the  proportion 
in  which  they  form  water.  The  most  important  carbohy- 
drates found  in  feeding  stuffs  are  starch,  gums  and  crude 
fiber  (cellulose.) 

Carbon.  A  chemical  element,  which,  with  the  elements 
of  water  makes  up  the  larger  part  of  the  dry  matter  of 
plants  and  animals. 

Carbonic  acid.  A  poisonous  gas  arising  from  the  com- 
bustion of  coal  or  wood.  It  is  formed  in  all  kinds  of  fer- 
mentations and  therefore  occurs  in  the  siloing  of  fodders. 

Cellulose.     See  Crude  fiber. 

Crude  fiber.  The  frame  work  forming  the  walls  of 
cells  of  plants.  It  is  composed  of  cellulose  and  lignin, 
the  latter  being  the  woody  portion  of  plants  and  wholly 
indigestible. 

Digestible  matter.  The  portion  of  feeding  stuffs  which 
is  digested  by  animals,  i.  e.,  brought  in  solution  or  semi- 


218  DEFINITION  OF  TERMS  USED. 

solution  by  the  digestive  fluids,  so  that  it  may  serve  as 
nourishment  for  the  animal  and  furnish  material  for  the 
production  of  meat,  milk,  wool,  eggs,  etc. 

Dry  matter.  The  portion  of  a  feeding  stuff  remain- 
ing after  the  water  contained  therein  has  been  removed. 

Ensilage.  An  obsolete  word  for  Silage.  Used  as  a  verb, 
likewise  obsolete,  for  to  silo;  to  ensile  also  sometimes 
incorrectly  used  for  the  purpose  of  placing  green  fodders 
into  a  silo. 

Enzemes.  An  unorganized  or  chemical  compound  of 
vegetable  or  animal  origin,  that  causes  fermentation,  as, 
pepsin,  or  rennet. 

Ether  extract.  The  portion  of  a  feeding  stuff  dis- 
solved by  ether;  mainly  fat  or  oil  in  case  of  concentrated 
feeding  .stuffs;  in  coarse  fodders,  fat,  mixed  with  a  num- 
ber of  substances  of  uncertain  feeding  value,  like  wax, 
chlorophyll  (the  green  coloring  matter  of  plants),  etc. 

Fat.    See  Ether  extract. 

Feeding  standard.  A  numerical  expression  of  the 
amount  of  various  digestible  substances  in  a  combina- 
tion of  feeding  stuffs  best  adapted  to  give  good  results  as 
regards  production  of  animal  products,  like  beef,  pork, 
milk,  etc. 

Indian  corn.  Zea  Mays,  the  great  American  cereal  and 
fodder-producing  plant. 

Hydrogen.  A  chemical  element,  a  gas.  Combined 
with  oxygen  it  forms  water,  with  oxygen  and  carbon  it 
forms  carbohydrates  and  fat;  with  oxygen,  carbon  and 
nitrogen  (with  small  amounts  of  sulphur  and  phosphorus) 
it  forms  the  complex  organic  nitrogenous  substances 
known  as  protein  albuminoid  substances. 

Legumes.  Plants  bearing  seeds  in  pods  and  capable 
of  fixing  the  gaseous  nitrogen  of  the  air,  so  that  it  be- 
comes of  value  to  the  farmer  and  will  supply  nitrogenous 
food  substances  to  farm  animals.  Examples,  the  different 
kinds  of  clover,  peas,  beans,  vetches,  etc.  Of  the  highest 
importance  agriculturally,  as  soil  renovators,  and  in  sup- 
plying farm-grown  protein  foods. 

Nitrogen.  A  chemical  element,  making  up  four-fifths 
of  the  air.  The  central  element  of  protein.  See  under 
Hydrogen. 

Nitrogen-free  extract.  The  portion  of  a  feeding  stuff 
remaining  when  water,  fat,  protein,  crude  fiber,  and  ash 
are  deducted.  It  includes  starch,  sugar,  pentosans,  and 
other  substances.  It  is  so  called  because  It  does  not  con- 
tain any  nitrogen. 


DEFINITION  OF  TERMS  USED.  219 

Nitrogenous  substances.  Substances  containing  nitro- 
gen (which  see). 

Nutrient.  A  food  constituent  or  group  of  food  con- 
stituents capable  of  nourishing  animals. 

Nutritive  ratio.  The  proportion  of  digestible  protein 
to  the  sum  of  digestible  carbohydrates  and  fat  in  a  ration, 
the  per  cent,  of  fat  being  multiplied  by  2*4,  and  added  to 
the  per  cent,  of  carbohydrates  (crude  fiber  plus  nitrogen- 
free  extract). 

Organic  matter.  The  portion  of  the  dry  matter  which 
is  destroyed  on  combustion  (dry  matter  minus  ash). 

Oxygen.  A  chemical  element  found  in  a  free  state 
in  the  air,  of  which  it  makes  up  about  one-fifth,  and  in 
combination  of  hydrogen  in  water;  oxygen  is  also  a  rarely- 
lacking  component  of  organic  substances.  See  Carbo- 
hydrates and  Hydrogen. 

Protein.  A  general  name  for  complex  organic  com- 
pounds mainly  made  up  from  the  elements  carbon,  hydro- 
gen, oxygen,  and  nitrogen.  Crude  protein  includes  all 
organic  nitrogen  compounds,  while  true  protein  or  albu- 
minoids (which  see)  only  includes  such  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances in  feeding  stuffs  as  are  capable  of  forming  muscle 
and  other  tissue  in  the  animal  body. 

Ration.  The  amount  of  food  that  an  animal  eats 
during  twenty-four  hours. 

Roughage.  The  coarse  portion  of  a  ration,  including 
such  feeding  stuffs  as  hay,  silage,  straw,  corn  fodder, 
roots,  etc.  Concentrated  feeding  stuffs  are  sometimes 
called  grain-feeds  or  concentrates,  in  contradistinction  to 
roughage. 

Silage.  The  succulent  feed  taken  out  of  a  silo.  For- 
merly called  ensilage. 

Silo.  An  air-tight  structure  used  for  the  preservation 
of  green,  coarse  fodders  in  a  succulent  condition.  As 
verb,  to  place  green  fodders  in  a  silo. 

Soiling.  The  system  of  feeding  farm  animals  in  a 
barn  or  enclosure  with  fresh  grass  or  green  fodders,  as 
rye,  corn,  oats,  Hungarian  grass,  etc. 

Starch.  One  of  the  most  common  carbohydrates  in 
feeding  stuffs  insoluble  in  water,  but  readily  digested  and 
changed  in  sugar  in  the  process  of  digestion. 

Succulent  feeds.  Feeding  stuffs  containing  consider- 
able water,  like  green  fodder,  silage  roots  and  pasture. 

Summer  silage.  Silage  intended  to  be  fed  out  during 
the  summer  and  early  fall  to  help  out  short  pastures. 

Summer  silo.  A  Silo  used  for  the  making  of  summer 
silage. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Advantages  of  the  silo 11,  182 

Alfalfa  silage  142 

Analyses  of  feeding  stuffs 205 

Animal  body,  composition  of  the 190 

Ash 192 

Average  composition  of  silage  crops 204 

Beet-pulp   silage    146 

Beets,  cost  of,  per  acre 184 

Beef  cattle,  silage  for 173 

Blower  elevators  159 

Brick   silos    105 

Capacity  of  round  silos 53 

Carbonic-acid  poisoning  in  silos,  danger  from 160 

Cement  block  silos,  how  made,  reinforcing,  etc.  of.  ...   127 

Cement  lining,  how  to  maintain 129 

Certified  milk,  silage  in  production  of 169 

Chemical  composition  of  silage 204 

Chute  for  a  round  wooden  silo 102 

Circles,  circumferences,  and  areas  of 101 

Clover  silage     140,  163 

Clover  silage,  cost  of 141 

Clover,  time  of  cutting  for  the  silo 141,  142 

Clover,  yield  per  acre  of 142 

Concrete    silos    121,126 

Concrete  silos,  forms  used  for  making 131 

Conserving  soil  fertility  with  silage  system 42 

Corn,  cutting  of,  in  the  field 149 

Corn  land,  preparation  of 133 

Corn,  methods  of  planting 139 

Corn  silage  vs.  fodder  corn 186 

Corn  silage  vs.  hay 184 

Corn  silage  vs.    roots 182 

Corn,  siloing  of,  "ears  and  all" 152 

Corn,  see  also  Indian  corn  and   Fodder  corn. 

Corners  of  square  silos,  methods  of  excluding  air  from  107 

Cost  of  beets  per  acre 184 

Cost  of  a  pound  of  digestible  dry  matter  in  different 

feeding  stuffs  211 

Conclusion     4 216 

Cost  of  corn  silage > 186 

Cost  of  silos    112,  115 

Covering  silage   161 

Cow-pea   silage    143 

Comparative  losses  in  dry  curing 15 

220 


'  INDEX.  221 

PAGE 

Corn,  time  of  cutting  for  silo 136 

Composition  of  the  animal  body 190 

Composition  of  the  silage  crops 204 

Composition  of  feeding  stuffs 191 

Crude  fiber  193 

Cutter  and  power,  size  of _ 155,  157 

Definition  of  terms  used 217 

Description  of  "Ohio"  silage  cutters 156,  228 

Digestibility  of  foods 194 

Doors  for  silos 68,     95 

Drought,  silo  in  times  of 25 

Ears  and  all,  siloing  of  corn 152 

Economy  of  storage 19 

Elevators,  pneumatic   159,  160 

Ensilage,  see  Silage. 

Estimating  of  materials  for  silos 115 

Feeders'   guide,   etc 190 

Feeding  stuffs,   composition   of 191 

Feeding   standards    196-199 

Feeding  of    silage    167 

Field-curing  of  fodder  corn,  losses  in 11,     14 

Filling  of  silo    20,  149,  155 

Food  from  thistles   21 

Food  ingredients,  increase  in 138 

Freezing  of  silage 165 

Grain  mixtures  for  dairy  cows 200 

Guide,   a  feeders' 192 

Hauling  corn  from  field,  rack  or  sled  for 151 

Hills  or  drills,  planting  of  corn  in 139 

History  of  the  silo 7 

Horizontal   girts,  silos  with 109 

Horses,   silage  for 174 

How  to  feed  silage 167 

How  to  figure  out  rations 200 

Indian  corn,  soil  adapted  for 133 

Indian  corn,  methods  of  planting 139 

Indian  corn     133 

Indian  corn,  chemical  changes  in 137 

Indian  corn,  increase  in  food  ingredients  from  tassel- 
ing  to  ripeness   138 

Indian  corn,  varieties  of,  to  be  planted  for  the  silo...  134 
Indian  corn,  see  also  Corn  and  Fodder  Corn. 

Ingleside  farms,  silos   158 

Introduction    9 

Lining  for  silos   70,    75 

Losses  in  dry  curing  11,    14 

Losses  in  the  siloing  process 16 


222  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Losses  in  siloing  Alfalfa 17 

Low  wagons  for  hauling  corn 151 

Lucerne,  see  Alfalfa. 

Materials  for  the  silo 89 

Metal  bucket,  chain  elevators 157 

Milch  cows,  silage  rations  for 171 

Milch  cows,  silage  for 167 

Mineral  matter   190 

Modification  of  "Wisconsin"  silo 76 

Miscellaneous   silage   crops 146-148 

New  Jersey  Experiment  Station  silo 158 

Nitrogen-free   extract    193 

No  danger  of  rain 19 

Number  of  staves  required  for  stave  silos 100 

Nutritive  Ratio    197 

Octagonal  silos   108 

Opinions  of  recognized  leaders 188 

"Ohio"  silage  cutters,  description  of 155,  160 

Painting  the  silo  lining 75 

Plastered  round  wooden  silos 77 

Planting  corn,  methods  of    139 

Planting  corn,  thickness  of    139 

Pneumatic  elevators 1'59 

"Poultrymen's  silos"   182 

Poultry,  silage  for 181 

Preparation  of  corn  land 133 

Preservation  of  silos 118,  120 

Protein   193 

Rack,  low-down,  for  hauling  corn 151 

Rations,  how  to  figure  out 200 

Rations,  silage,  for  dairy  cows .* 171 

Ready  reference  tables 211,  215 

Relative  value  of  feeding  stuffs 195 

Reinforced  concrete  silo  construction 125 

Roof  for  the  silo 73,  88,  96,  97 

Round   silos    53 

Sheep,   silage  for 176 

Shrinking  of  silage-fed  cattle 38 

Silage,  alfalfa 142 

Silage  and  soil  fertility 42 

Silage  cart    168 

Silage,  chemical  composition  of 204 

Silage,  clover     140 

Silage,  cost  of  1 

Silage  crops   183 

Silage,  feeding   of 167 

Silage  for  horses    174 


INDEX.  223 

PAGE 

Silage  for  milch  cows   167,  171 

Silage  for  poultry  181 

Silage  for  sheep 176 

Silage  for  beef  cattle 173 

Silage  for  swine   180 

Silage-fed  beef  cattle  in  the  South 37 

Silage,  freezing  of   165 

Silage  good  for  stockers 40 

Silage,  how  to  feed  167 

Silage,  quantities  of,  required  for  different  herds 54 

Silage  rations  for  milch  cows 171 

Silage,  use  of  in  beef  production 28 

Silage,  steaming  of 166 

Silo,  summer 23 

Silos,  acreage  to  fill 54 

Silos,  how  to  build 48 

Silos,  general    requirements    for 48 

Silos,  on  the  form  of 54 

Silos,  the  filling  process    153 

Silos,  time  of  filling 149 

Silos,  roof  for    103 

Silos,  round   all-stone    103 

Silos,  round  wooden   53 

Silos,  concrete    121-126 

Silos,  cement  block   127 

Silos,  chute  for  103 

Silos,  cost  of   76,  77,  81,  96,  98,  112,  115 

Silos,  location   of 58 

Silos,  specifications    for 60,  76,  81,  86,  108 

Silos,  square,  methods  of  excluding  air  from  corners  of  107 

Silos,  stone  105 

Silos,  value  in  intensive  farming 21 

Silos,  ventilation  of  24 

Silos,  with  horizontal  girts   109 

Silos,  foundation   of    60,  61,  63,  65,  86,  109 

Size  of  silo  required 51 

Silos,  brick  lined   81 

Silos,  all   brick    105 

Silos,  in  the  barn 106 

Silos,  octagonal     108 

Size  of  cutter  and  power  required  155 

Sorghum  silage   * 145 

Southern  and  Northern  varieties  of  corn,  comparative 

yield  of    135 

Soil  fertility  maintained  with  silage 42 

Soiling  crops,  table  of  209 

Soiling  crops,  time  of  planting  and  feeding 209 


224  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Soja  Beans   145 

Specifications  for  a  stave  silo 86 

Stave  silos 83,  98 

Stave  silos,  calculation  of  staves  required  for 101 

Stave  silos,  roof  of   88 

Stave  silos,  specifications  for 86 

Staves,  calculation  of  number  required 101 

Steamed   silage 166 

Steers,  silage  for   173 

Stockers,  silage   good   for 40 

Stone  silos    105 

Succulence    18 

Summer  silo,  advantages  of 23 

Summary   results    40 

Swine,  silage   for   180 

Thickness  of  planting  corn 139 

Time  of  filling  the  silo 20,  149 

Time  of  cutting  corn  for  the  silo 136 

Use  of  silage  in  beef  production 28 

Value  in  intensive  farming 21 

Varieties  of  corn  to  be  planted  for  the  silo 134 

Waste   of  roughness 38 

Water,  use  of  in  filling  silos .' 162 

Weight  of  concentrated  feeds 208 

Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  silos,  description  of  80,  82 

Yields  of  clover  per  acre 140 


1 5  Years'  Experience  with  the  Silo 

By  F.  L.  Allen. 


MAPLE  CREEK  FARM 

Trumbull   Co.,    Ohio. 
The  Silver   Manufacturing   Co.,   Salem,   Ohio. 

Gentlemen: — Complying  with  your  request  I  submit  the  fol- 
lowing as  embracing  my  experience  of  15  years  with  the  silo, 
and  in  feeding  silage  for  milk  and  beef: 

Economy  of  the  Silo. 

The  silo  cannot  be  looked  upon  as  the  only  essential  ele- 
ment of  success  in  farm  practice,  yet  there  are  many  distinct 
advantages  to  be  gained  from  its  use.  In  the  first  place  it  en- 
ables one  to  use  the  entire  corn  crop.  The  analysis  of  the  corn 
plant  shows  that  nearly  one-half  its  food  value  is  in  the  stalk 
and  leaves  after  the  ear  has  been  removed.  It  also  shows  that 
there  is  the  most  digestible  matter  in  the  crop  just  at  its  matur- 
ity, before  it  dries  and  hardens.  By  the  usual  methods  of  hand- 
ling the  crop,  a  large  part — frequently  all — of  the  fodder  is 
wasted,  and  a  distinct  loss  is  incurred  by  allowing  the  fodder 
to  dry  out.  The  use  of  the  silo  enables  the  feeder  to  avoid 
these  losses,  for  he  can  take  the  entire  crop  from  the  field  just 
at  the  time  when  it  contains  the  most  digestible  food  value, 
place  it  under  cover  at  the  barn  convenient  for  feeding,  succu- 
lent, .digestible,  palatable,  in  such  condition  that  it  will  all  be 
consumed. 

We  value  the  silo  as  the  source  of  an  abundant  supply  of 
cheap,  succulent  food  for  the  winter  months  or  seasons  of 
drouth.  Silage,  if  properly  put  up,  will  keep  for  an  indefinite 
time.  We  have  fed  it  four  years  old  as  "good  as  new."  It  is 
worth  while  to  have  it  on  hand  ready  to  supply  the  need  at 
any  time. 

Silage   Differs   in   Composition. 

Many  farmers  seem  to  forget  that  the  silo  merely  preserves 
what  is  put  into  it.  One  can  never  get  anything  out  of  a  silo 
that  he  doesn't  first  put  in.  If  soft,  immature  corn  is  put  into 
a  silo,  the  silage  will  be  sour,  washy  stuff,  with  little  "body" 
to  it,  and  its  feeding  will  be  a  disappointment.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  good,  mature,  well-eared  corn  is  siloed,  the  result  will 
be  a  strong,  nutritious  food,  highly  satisfactory. 

Chemical  analysis  of  the  corn  plant  shows  that  it  nearly 
doubles  in  feeding  value  between  the  time  it  reaches  its  full 
growth  (tasseled)  and  maturity.  The  feeding  value  of  silage 
will  correspond  with  the  maturity  of  the  corn  siloed. 

Silage   Not  a   Perfect  Food. 

Probably  most  will  agree  that  good  blue  grass  pasture  Is 
the  cheapest  and  most  satisfactory,  all-around  food  for  growth 
or  milk.  Now,  if  we  will  compare  the  analyses  of  blue  grass 
pasture  and  good  silage,  we  will  find  them  almost  identical 
except  in  the  matter  of  protein,  in  which  element  silage  is 
deficient. 

Water.     Protein        Carbohydrates      Fat 

Pasture    grass    80  2.6  10.6  .6 

•Silage      79  1.2  11.8  .6 

225 

15 


Fifteen  Years'  Experience  With  the  Silo — Continued. 


By  comparing  the  analyses  we  will  see  that  to  make  silage 
an  economical  food,  and  to  get  the  most  out  of  it,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  feed  in  connection  with  it  some  food  rich  in  protein. 
It  has  been  our  experience  that  by  using  the  succulent  silage 
as  a  basis  for  our  ration  and  adding  sufficient  protein  to  dupli- 
cate the  analysis  of  pasture  grass,  we  can  have  very  nearly 
summer  food  and  secure  very  nearly  summer  results  in  the 
winter.  We  have  a  theory  that  inasmuch  as  silage  is  a  sum- 
mer food — that  is,  has  the  succulence  of  summer  food — summer 
conditions  of  warmth  should  be  provided  to  go  with  the  food. 
Nature  in  wisdom  provides  the  succulent  grasses  for  the  warmth 
of  summer  and  dried  grasses  for  the  cold  of  winter.  Possibly 
many  disappointments  can  be  traced  to  a  failure  to  provide 
suitable  conditions  for  the  feeding  of  silage. 

Cost  of  Silage. 

Silage  is  one  of  the  cheapest  foods  the  stockman  can  use. 
The  cost  of  growing  an  acre  of  corn  to  maturity  will  be  about 
as  follows:  Use  of  land,  $5;  plowing,  $2;  fitting,  $1;  planting, 
60  cents;  seed,  25  cents;  cultivating,  $1.25.  Total  cost  of  an  acre 
of  corn  at  maturity,  $10.  It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  these 
are  very  liberal  allowances,  giving  the  farmer  a  good  income 
from  his  investment,  and  good  wages  for  all  time  spent  In 
producing  the  crop.  On  good  land,  with  good  care,  in  a  fairly 
favorable  season,  a  crop  of  16  to  20  tons  per  acre  is  not  at  all 
unattainable,  making  the  silage  cost  on  the  ground,  50  to  60 
cents  per  ton.  With  modern  machinery  and  good  management, 
it  can  be  put  into  the  silo  for  35  to  40  cents  per  ton.  Indeed, 
with  our  large  machinery  and  strong  force  of  men,  we  have  put 
it  into  the  silo  for  less  than  30  cents.  Interest  on  the  cost  of  a 
silo,  and  deterioration  of  the  silo,  will  add  10  cents  more,  mak- 
ing the  total  cost  of  a  ton  of  silage  $0.95  to  $1.10. 

Fifty  pounds  of  silage  per  day  is  a  good  ration  for  a  grown 
animal.  Forty  days  feed  for  a  dollar!  And  an  acre  of  good 
corn  will  feed  three  or  four  animals  200  days,  or  through  the 
winter.  Surely  there  is  no  cheaper  food. 

Filling  the  Silo. 

We  have  found  that  we  fill  the  silo  much  cheaper  by  using 
machinery  of  large  size,  and  employing  a  sufficient  force  of  men 
to  keep  it  running  to  its  full  capacity.  Our  machine,  which  is 
a  company  affair,  is  a  24-inch  "OHIO,"  and  will  handle  about 
.all  the  corn  that  can  be  got  to  it.  Our  force  consists  of  five  or 
six  teams  and  wagons,  according  to  the  distance  of  hauling, 
six  men  in  the  field  to  load  the  wagons,  two  men  at  the  cutter 
to  help  driver  unload,  and  one  man  in  the  silo.  The  corn  is 
cut  with  a  harvester  and  tied  in  bundles  as  large  as  a  man 
can  lift.  We  divide  our  help  in  the  field  in  to  two  companies 
or  gangs,  three  men  loading  half  the  wagons  and  three  the 
other  half.  Thus  they  are  not  in  each  other's  way,  and  three 
men  can  hand  the  bundles  up  to  the  loader  as  fast  as  he  can 
place  them.  We  load  the  wagons  beginning  at  the  rear  end, 
building  up  a  tier  of  bundles  against  the  rear  standard,  then 
another,  till  the  load  is  completed,  and  placing  them  so  that 
butts  will  be  toward  the  machine  in  unloading.  Loaded  in  this 
way  the  bundles  do  not  overlap  and  bind  each  other,  and  three 
men  at  the  machine,  each  taking  a  bundle  in  turn,  and  placing 
It  In  the  cutter,  can  feed  the  largest  machine  to  its  full  capacity, 
and  unload  a  wagon  in  a  surprisingly  short  time.  In  a  trial  we 

226 


Fifteen  Years'  Experience  With  the  Silo — Continued. 


have  unloaded  a  3800-pound  load,  cut  it  in  %-inch  lengths,  and 
elevated  it  into  a  45-foot  silo  in  a  fraction  over  three  minutes 
With  good  corn  we  can  put  in  20  tons  per  hour,  at  a  cost  of 
less  than  30  cents  per  ton.  The  more  modern  blower  has  many 
advantages  over  the  old  carrier  and  very  rapid  work  may  be 
done  by  some  of  the  new  machines. 

Silage  for  Milk. 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  silo  is  a  good  thing  in  the 
dairy.  In  the  dairy  section  of  Ohio  it  has  found  a  place  on  most 
dairy  farms  and  is  considered  indispensable,  especially  for  win- 
ter milk.  It  is  our  practice  to  feed  silage  the  year  round,  ex- 
cepting perhaps  a  couple  of  months  in  the  early  summer,  when 
the  pasture  is  at  its  best,  and  we  have  come  to  value  it  nearly, 
if  not  quite,  as  highly  to  supplement  summer  pastures  as  for 
the  winter  ration. 

Silage  for   Beef. 

While  most  persons  are  now  ready  to  admit  that  silage  is  a 
desirable  food  in  the  dairy,  many  yet  question  its  value  in  the 
production  of  beef.  Theoretically  the  ration  that  will  produce 
a  large  flow  of  milk  ought  to  promote  the  growth  of  the  young 
beef  animal.  Our  experience  proves  the  truth  of  the  theory 
so  far  as  silage  is  concerned.  Just  as  the  milch  cow  in  the 
winter  approximates  summer  results  in  milk,  when  silage  is 
used  as  a  basis  of  the  ration,  so  the  young  steer  approximates 
summer  results  in  growth  on  the  same  ration.  We  have  had 
steers  make  an  average  gain  of  three  pounds  per  day  for  a 
short  time  on  a  silage  ration  balanced  with  protein  grain,  such 
as  the  gluten  feeds. 

One  thing  has  not  been  mentioned  and  that  is  the  health 
and  thrift  of  the  animals,  whether  milch  cows  or  steers.  Our 
animals  always  shed  in  March,  are  always  in  condition  and 
ready  to  make  rapid  gains  on  the  first  grass  of  spring.  We 
have  fed  silage  to  horses,  brood  sows  and  poultry,  with  very 
satisfactory  results.  Yours  truly, 

F.  L.  ALLEN. 


Publishers'  Note. 

In  talking  with  Ex-Governor  Hoard  of  Wisconsin  recently, 
he  mentioned  the  fact  that  he  has  made  a  practice  for  the  past 
three  years  of  putting  about  30  bbls.  of  water  on  top  of  his 
silage  after  filling,  with  very  satisfactory  results.  It  seems  to 
settle  the  whole  mass  and  especially  the  top,  and  causes  a 
very  thin  crust  to  form,  thus  sealing  the  silo  with  scarcely  a 
cart  full  of  waste. 

The  "Ohio"  Blower  Machine  will  elevate  the  water  and 
spread  it  over  the  top  perfectly. 


227 


'Ohio"  Standard  Feed  and  Ensilage  Cutter 

Showing  New  Metal  Bucket  Carrier,  Set  for  Right- 
Angle  Delivery 


Fig.  784,  No.  1  1 

No.  11  With  two  11  -In.  knives,  cuts  %,  1, 
weight   440   Ibs 


and  2  inches, 


No.  11  With  four  11 -in.  knives,  cuts  %, 
weight   440   Ibs 


and  1  inch, 


Reversible  carrier  with  angle  or  straight  delivery; 
also  straight  delivery  carrier  with  'reversible  at- 
tachments, in  12-ft.  lengths  or  more,  can  be 
supplied  for  these  machines. 

Extra  Gears,  to  cut  4  inches  long,  with  two  knives, 
can  also  be  furnished. 

Machines  are  regularly  equipped  with  four  cutting 
knives,  but  when  desired  can  be  supplied  with 
Shredder  blades  instead,  at  slight  extra  cost. 
Shredder  blades  are  illustrated  on  page  238. 

For  full  information,  prices,  etc.,  see  our  large 
Feed  and  Ensilage  Cutter  Catalog. 

228 


Smallest   Size    Ensilage   Cutter. 

The  illustration  on  the  opposite  page  is  a  good  representation 
of  the  smallest  size  ensilage  cutter  and  it  shows  also  the  new 
metal  bucket  carrier  set  for  right  angle  delivery.  This  is  the 
style  carrier  manufactured  for  this  machine,  and  it  can  be  set 
at  right  or  left  angle,  or  straightaway. 

Construction   of  the  Carrier. 

The  sides  of  the  trough  are  tied  together  by  wood  strips  and 
they  are  reinforced  by  iron  rods.  The  hangers  at  top  have 
adjustment  which  is  to  set  the  tension  in  the  chain.  The  chain 
is  malleable  links  of  standard  make,  and  the  attachment  link 
is  our  special  design  and  admits  of  the  bucket  being  full  width 
of  the  trough.  The  buckets  are  heavy  sheet  metal  and  are 
two  inches  high.  The  metal  hood  at  bottom  and  a  tail  piece 
under  the  chain  catch  the  cut  ensilage  and  prevent  it  spilling 
out.  It  will  carry  the  ensilage  away  as  fast  as  it  comes  from 
the  machine. 

Uses  of  Elevators. 

The  first  and  principal  use  of  elevators  of  this  kind  is  to  convey 
cut  ensilage  into  the  silo.  Other  uses  are  to  deliver  dry  cut 
feed,  of  whatever  kind,  into  bays,  bins,  lofts,  and  other  places 
away  from  the  machine,  which  saves  the  expense  of  a  man. 

Has  Capacity  to  Fill  50-ton  Silos. 

The  cutter  is  substantial,  has  large  capacity,  and  is  adapted 
to  cut  all  kinds  of  dry  feed  as  well  as  ensilage.  It  has  capacity 
to  fill  50-ton  silos,  and  even  larger  ones,  but  as  this  work  neces- 
sitates a  force  of  men  and  teams,  and  taking  into  account  the 
liability  of  frost,  owners  of  silos  usually  give  preference  to  a 
larger  machine,  so  that  the  cutting  may  be  done  quickly  and 
not  lag. 

Shredding    Fodder. 

By  substituting  shredder  blades  for  the  cutting  knives,  perfect 
shredding  can  be  accomplished.  A  sample  of  the  shredded 
material  as  it  comes  from  the  machine  is  shown  in  the  Illus- 
tration on  page  238.  A  full  description  accompanies  the  illus- 
tration. 

Capacity. 

Dry  feed  2500  to  3000  pounds;  ensilage,  three  to  four  tons  per 
hour. 

Speed. 

450  to  600  revolutions  per  minute. 
Power. 

Two -horse. 
Pulley. 

Size  sent  12x4-inch  face;  diameters,  6,  8,  10  and  15  inches 
can  be  furnished.  » 

Weight. 

No.  11  Cutter,  440  Ibs.  Reversible  carrier,  12  feet  long;  200 
pounds;  extensions,  per  foot,  8  pounds. 

229 


"Ohio"  Standard  Feed  and  Ensilage  Cutter 

Equipped  with  Self-Feed  Table  and  Blower  Elevator 


Fig.  803,  No.  1 1 

No.  11  Self  Feed  Cutter,  complete  as  illustrated;  weight 

725  Ibs 

No.  11  Plain  Table  Cutter  complete;  weight  925  Ibs 

These  machines  are  equipped  with  Blower  and 
Hood,  but  no  pipe.  They  have  two  11 -inch 
knives  and  cut  %,  1,  1%  and  2  inches. 

7-inch  galvanized  pipe  comes  in  4,  6  and  10-ft. 
lengths 

Extra  Gears,  to  cut  4  inches  long,  can  be  supplied. 

Machines  are  regularly  equipped  with  cutting 
knives,  but  when  desired  can  be  supplied  with 
Shredder  Blades  instead,  at  slight  extra  cost. 
Shredder  Blades  are  illustrated  and  described 
on  page  238. 

For  full  information  and  prices,  see  our  large  Feed 
and  Ensilage  Cutter  catalog. 


DESCRIPTION 

The  Illustration. 

On  the  opposite  page  is  shown  our  No.  11  Feed  and  En- 
silage Cutter,  equipped  with  Blower  Elevator  and  Self  Feed 
Table.  This  addition  has  been  made  in  order  to  meet  a  growing 
demand  for  a  Blower  Cutter  to  be  operated  with  light  power — 
four  to  six  horse.  The  machine  is  also  made  with  plain  table 
instead  of  Self-Feed. 
Adaptability. 

This  Cutter  has  long  been  our  most  popular  size  for  general 
farm  use.    It  is  adapted  for  cutting  all  kinds  of  dry  feeds  as  well 
as  ensilage,  is  strongly  and  durably  built,  has  large  capacity  and 
requires  but  slight  power  to  run. 
Direct   Blast   Blower. 

The  fan  wheel  is  heavy  and  carries  three  blades  or  paddles, 
which  are  fastened  absolutely  rigid.  The  fan  case  is  made  of 
heavy  steel,  and  is  closely  riveted.  The  general  construction 
is  identical  with  that  of  the  Blower  so  successfully  used  for  the 
past  eight  years  in  connection  with  our  "Monarch"  Machines. 
An  auger  conveys  the  cut  material  into  the  Blower. 
Materials  and  Construction. 

The  frame  throughout  is  of  the  best  hardwood,  rigidly  put 
together.  It  is  nicely  striped  and  finished  in  the  natural;  the 
iron  work  is  maroon  and  the  whole  machine  is  varnished,  giving 
a  very  attractive  appearance.  The  knives  are  made  of  a  high 
carbon  steel,  are  carefully  tempered  and  very  durable.  They 
are  securely  bolted  to  solid  knife  heads  and  are  readily  ad- 
justable. The  knife  shaft  is  of  steel,  1%  inches  in  diameter. 
The  shaft  bearings  are  long  and  well  babbitted.  The  feeding 
mechanism  is  excellent.  As  the  upper  feed  roller  rises  to 
allow  the  feed  to  pass  through,  the  cog  wheels  remain  in  proper 
mesh  without  binding,  making  an  easy-running,  durable  device. 
The  throwout  or  feed  lever  is  also  very  simple  and  easy  of 
operation.  Its  use  enables  the  operator  to  stop  the  feed  in- 
stantly in  case  of  accident  or  otherwise. 
The  Pipe  and  Pipe  Connections. 

The  pipe  is  7  inches  in  diameter  and  is  made  of  galvanized 
steel  with  standing  seam  on  the  outside,  running  lengthwise, 
being  very  rigid.  It  is  made  in  4,  6  and  10-fo9t  lengths  with 
7-inch  slip  joints  and  a  clamping  band  at  each  joint.  A  swivel 
joint  connection  at  the  fan  case  allows  the  pipe  to  turn  in  any 
direction.  Included  with  each  machine  is  a  hood  or  elbow  which 
is  to  connect  to  upper  end  of  pipe  and  convey  the  cut  ensilage 
into  the  silo. 
Set  Pipe  Nearly  Perpendicular  for  Ensilage; 

Dry   Feed   Can    Be   Blown   In  Any   Direction. 

If  lateral  delivery  is  desired,  suitable  elbows  can  be  fur- 
nished at  slight  cost.  For  green  silage  it  is  necessary  to  carry 
the  pipe  nearly  perpendicular  to  height  of  opening  and  the 
hood  at  top  will  direct  the  silage  into  silo.  Dry  cut  or  shredded 
fodder  may  be  blown  in  almost  any  direction  by  proper  use 
of  suitable  elbows. 
Shredding  Fodder. 

The  new  patented  shredder  blade  should  be  run  at  600  to 
700  revolutions  per  minute  while  shredding,  and  is  a  notable 
advance  in  construction,  enabling  the  operator  to  shred  dry 
fodder  or  corn  stover  with  the  blower.  There  is  a  great  saving 
in  power  also,  as  compared  with  the  tooth  or  saw-blade  type 
of  shredder,  besides  saving  the  leaves  in  much  better  condition. 
See  illustration  of  shredded  material  on  page  238. 
Capacity. 

The  machine  will  cut  and  elevate  from  3  to  5  tons  ensilage 
per  hour. 
Power. 

Plain  table,  5  or  6  horse';  Self  Feed,  6  or  7  horse. 
Speed. 

650  to  750  revolutions  per  minute. 
Pulley. 

10   in.    diameter  by   6   in.    face.     Choice   of   other   diameters 
when  wanted. 

231 


'Ohio"  Monarch  Self-Feed  Ensilage  Cutter 

Showing  New  Metal  Bucket  Swivel  Carrier 


Fig.  794,  Nos.  12,  14,  17,  19  and  22 


No.  12  Cuts 
No.  14  Cuts 
No.  17  Cuts 
No.  19  Cuts 
No.  22  Cuts 


in.  and  1  in. 
in.  and  1  in. 
in.  and  1  in. 
in.  and  1  in. 


weight  1000  Ibs. 
weight  1050  Ibs. 
weight  1100  Ibs. 
weight  1150  Ibs. 
weight  1200  Ibs. 


in.  and  1  in. 
12-ft.  Straight  Carrier'f or  Nos.  12,  14  and  17;  240  Ibs. . . 

12-ft.  Straight  Carrier  for  Nos.  19  and  22 ;  355  Ibs 

12-ft.  Swivel  Carrier  for  Nos.  12,  14,  and  17;  315  Ibs.     . . 

12-ft.  Swivel  Carrier  for  Nos.  19  and  22 ;  480  Ibs 

Carrier  over  12  ft.  for  Nos.  12, 14  and  17  per  ft;  10  Ibs.. 

Carrier  over  12  ft.  for  Nos.  19  and  22 ;  14  Ibs 

Wood    cover   for    Carrier,    with    hooks   and    eyes   to 

fasten,   can   be  furnished  for  all   sizes. 
Extra  Gears,  to  cut  4  inches  long,  with  two  knives, 

can  also  be  supplied. 
Machines  are  regularly  equipped  with  four  cutting 

knives,   but  when  desired  can  be  supplied  with 

Shredder    Blades    instead    at    slight    extra    cost. 

Shredder  blades  are  illustrated  on  page  238. 
For  full  information,  prices,  etc.,  see  our  large  Feed 

and  Ensilage   Cutter  Catalog. 

232 


The  illustration  opposite  shows  a  No.  17  "Ohio"  Mon- 
arch Self-feed  Cutter  with  metal  bucket  swivel  carrier 
attached.  Carriers  are  furnished  in  any  length  that  may 
be  required. 

The  machines  are  made  in  five  sizes,  with  capacities 
and  required  powers  as  listed  below. 

They  are  also  manufactured  with  Blower  Elevator,  as 
shown  in  illustration  on  page  234. 

The  "Ohio"  machines  are  supreme  in  the  Ensilage  Cut- 
ter field,  due  to  their  wonderful  capacity,  great  durability 
and  easy-running-and-feeding  qualities. 

It  is  significant  that  the  "Ohio"  self-feed  mechanism  has 
been  copied  by  all  other  manufacturers,  which  proves  its 
value.  The  table  is  8  feet  long,  and  the  largest  bundles  of 
corn  can  be  thrown  on  it  and  without  further  attention  are 
carried  to  the  feed  rolls  and  thence  to  the  knives. 

No.  12 — Capacity,  8  to  10  tons  per  hour;    power,  4  to  6 
horse  steam. 

No.  14 — Capacity,  12  to  15  tons  per  hour;   power,  4  to  6 
horse  steam. 

No.  17 — Capacity,  15  to  20  tons  per  hour;   power,  6  to  8 
horse  steam. 

No.  19 — Capacity,  20  to  25  tons  per  hour;  power,  8  to  10 
horse  steam. 

No.  22 — Capacity,  25  to  30  tons  per  hour;  power,  10  to  12 
horse  steam. 

Speed — 450    to    600    revolutions    per   minute,    pulley   12x6 
inches;    choice  of  other  diameters  when  wanted. 


Ohio"  Monarch  Self-Feed  Ensilage  Cutter 

With  Blower  Elevator 


This  is  a  very  fine  view  of  the  machine 
in  its  entirety.  The  hood  over  the  cutting 
cylinder  is  closed  down  ready  for  action. 
The  gearing  is  protected  by  guards,  as 
shown. 


Fig.  802,  Nos.  19  and  22 

No.  12  Cuts  %  in.,  %  in.,  %  in.  and  1  in.;  weight  1500  Ibs. 

No.  14  Cuts  %  in.,  V2  in.,  %  in.  and  1  in.;  weight  1550  Ibs. 

No.  17  Cuts  ii  in.,  %  in.,  %  in.  and  1  in.;  weight  1600  Ibs. 

No.  19  Cuts  %  in.,  %  in.,  %  in.  and  1  in.;  weight  1650  Ibs. 

No.  22  Cuts  %  in.,  V2  in.,  %  in.  and  1  in.;  weight  1700  Ibs. 

Regular  equipment  for  above  machines  includes 
blower,  covered  pulley  and  distributer,  but  no 
pipe. 

10-inch  galvanized  pipe  comes  in  4,  6,  8  and  10 -foot 
lengths  (weight  4  pounds  to  foot.) 

Extra  gears,  to  cut  4  inches  long,  with  2  knives, 
can  also  be  furnished. 

.Machines  are  regularly  equipped  with  4  cutting 
knives,  but  when  desired,  can  be  supplied  with 
shredder  blades  instead,  at  slight  extra  cost. 
Shredder  blades  are  illustrated  on  page  238. 

For  full  information,  prices,  etc.,  see  our  large  Feed 
and  Ensilage  Cutter  Catalog. 

234 


The  machine  illustrated  on  opposite  page  is  representa- 
tive of  the  *  Ohio"  Monarch  Self-feed  Blower  Ensilage 
Cutter.  As  previously  stated,  these  machines  are  made  in 
five  sizes,  Nos.  12,  14,  17,  19  and  22;  the  blower  is  a  part 
of  the  machine. 

The  construction  throughout  is  heavy  and  powerful. 
The  frame  is  strong  and  rigidly  put  together;  the  steel 
knife  shaft  is  heavy,  running  clear  through  the  machine 
and  carrying  the  drive  pulley,  knife  heads  and  fly  wheel. 
Four  steel  paddles  are  fastened  to  this  fly  wheel,  in  such 
a  way  that  it  is  absolutely  impossible  for  them  to  become 
loosened  in  any  way.  A  heavy,  well-riveted  sheet  steel 
fan  case  acts  as  a  covering  for  the  whole. 

The  characteristic  feature  of  the  "Ohio"  Monarch 
Blower  is  its  immense  capacity,  using  so  little  power.  The 
power  is  applied  primarily  to  the  main  shaft,  and  all  the 
heavy  work — cutting  and  elevating — is  done  direct  from 
this  shaft,  so  that  not  an  ounce  of  power  is  wasted  through 
short  belts,  transmission  gears,  etc.  Moreover,  the  liabil- 
ity of  breakage  and  wear  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

The  pipe  is  10  inches  in  diameter,  in  convenient 
lengths,  and  made  of  galvanized  steel.  A  swivel  joint  con- 
nection of  the  fan  case  allows  it  to  turn  in  any  direction. 

The  new  patented  "Ohio"  silage  distributor  (see  page 
237)  is  included  with  each  machine. 

No.  12 — Capacity,  8  to  10  tons  per  hour;  6  to  8  horse 
power. 

No.  14 — Capacity,  12  to  15  tons  per  hour;  8  to  10  horse 
power. 

No.  17 — Capacity,  15  to  20  tons  per  hour;  10  to  12  horse 
power. 

No.  19 — Capacity,  20  to  2-5  tons  per  hour;  12  to  14  horse 
power. 

No.  22 — Capacity,  25  to  30  tons  per  hour;  14  to  16  horse 
power. 

Speed — 650  to  700  revolutions  per  minute.  Pulley  12x8 
inches,  leather  covered.  Choice  of  other  diam- 
eters when  wanted. 

235 


New  Steel  Truck 

For  Mounting  "Ohio"  Ensilage  Cutters 
Fig.  815 


This  new  steel  truck  is  suitable  for  mounting  all  sizes 
of  "Ohio"  Silage  Cutters  with  traveling  feed  tables,  both 
Blower  and  Carrier  style,  and  it  is  recommended  as  a 
thoroughly  practical,  economical  and  satisfactory  mount- 
ing for  all  parties  who  wish  to  move  their  machines  fre- 
quently or  regularly.  All  parts  are  interchangeable,  and 
in  case  of  accident  may  be  readily  replaced. 

Full  description  and  price  in  our  Feed  and  Ensilage 
Cutter  Catalog. 

236 


Patented  "Ohio" 
Silage  Distributer 

Furnished  FREE  with  all 
"Ohio"  Monarch  Blower 
machines. 


New 

Silo 

Tube 


"Ohio"  Silage  Distributer.  The  new  distributer  furnished 
with  each  machine  is  a  curved,  jointed  elbow,  5  feet  long,  open 
on  the  outer  side  so  as  to  prevent  back  pressure.  Firmest  at- 
tachment to  the  pipe  is  secured  by  two  clamping  bands  around 
the  upper  end  of  the  pipe.  There  is  a  hinged  joint  at  the  middle 
of  the  curve,  which  allows  the  outer  end  to  be  raised  and 
lowered  by  means  of  a  rope  reaching  to  the  ground,  thus  di- 
recting the  cut  material  toward  any  point  across  the  silo.  By 
means  of  the  swivel  at  the  bottom  of  the  pipe  the  hood  can  be 
turned  to  the  right  or  left  and  in  this  manner  the  cut  ensilage 
may  be  evenly  distributed  over  the  entire  silo  during  the  process 
of  filling.  This  device  is  patented,  and  a  distinctive  feature  to 
be  had  only  -vith  "Ohio"  Blowers. 

Our  Nevi,  Silo  Tube  can  be  hung  from  the  distributor  or 
roof  of  silo.  It  catches  the  silage  and  delivers  it  in  a  compact 
mass  at  the  bottom  of  the  silo.  This  insures  perfectly  equal 
distribution  of  the  cut  feed,  the  leaves,  moisture  and  heavier 
parts  being  always  uniformly  mixed  as  cut.  It  is  flexible  in 
character  and  is  to  be  guided  by  hand.  The  man  inside  the 
silo  will  appreciate  this  tube,  as  its  use  eliminates  the  objection- 
able features  heretofore  connected  with  his  part  of  the  work. 

Important! 

The  cut  ensilage  should  be  directed  to  the  outer  edge  of  the  silo 
at  all  times,  thus  keeping  it  high  and  packing  it  there,  letting 
the  center  take  care  of  itself.  The  weight  of  the  silage  packs 
it  in  the  center. 

237 


The  New  "Ohio"  Shredder 

Showing  a  Sample  of  Shredded  Corn  Stalks 


Speed,  600  to  700  revolutions 

The  illustration  above  shows  a  regular  "Ohio"  machine 
equipped  with  our  Patented  Shredder  Blades  instead  of  with 
Knives.  These  Shredder  Blades  are  interchangeable  with  cut- 
ting Knives  on  all  sizes  of  cutters  from  No.  9  up,  so  that  by 
purchasing  the  Blades  extra  the  user  has  two  machines  in  one, 
with  little  extra  cost. 

When  shredded  properly,  corn  is  much  more  readily  eaten 
and  with  much  less  waste  than  when  fed  whole.  Shredded  dry 
fodder  is  considered  much  better  than  dry  cut  fodder,  for  the 
reason  that  it  is  split  and  torn,  thus  doing  away  with  the  trou- 
blesome sharp  edges. 

The  new  Shredder  Blade  successfully  reduces  the  fodder 
to  the  proper  condition,  with  the  same  power,  speed  and  capacity 
as  the  regular  "Ohio"  Cutter.  The  blades  have  projecting  steel 
teeth — no  two  in  succession  travel  in  the  same  path.  Unlike  the 
saw-blade  or  tooth  Shredders,  they  do  not  pulverize  and  waste 
the  leaves,  but  split  and  tear  the  stalks  perfectly.  The  shredded 
corn  in  the  picture  was  made  with  two  blades  on  the  cylinder 
and  it  is  reduced  to  a  nice  condition;  hence  four  blades  will 
shred  it  much  finer. 

The  greatest  saving  in  this  new  shredder  is  that  perfect 
work  can  be  done  at  normal  speed  (600  to  700  revolutions), 
which  means  that  the  same  power  which  runs  the  cutter  will 
run  the  shredder — and  that  nothing  extra  but  the  shredder 
blades  are  needed  to  make  two  machines  in  one. 

238 


OFFICE  OF  THE  SILVER  MFG.  CO. 


Salem,  Ohio,  U.  S.  A.,  Jan.  1,  1911. 

In  issuing  the  foregoing  we  have  spared  neither  pains 
nor  expense  in  producing  reliable  data  and  information 
from  best  authorities  in  order  to  produce  a  book  entirely 
comprehensive  and  worthy  of  the  subject. 

In  testimony  of  our  efforts  we  mention  with  some  pride 
that  "Modern  Silage  Methods"  has  been  furnished  on  many 
occasions  to  be  used  as  a  Text  Book  in  the  classes  of  our 
Agricultural  Colleges  throughout  the  States  and  recently 
the  plates  were  furnished  on  request  to  the  Director  Gen- 
eral of  Agriculture  at  Lisbon  for  the  purpose  of  reproduc- 
ing the  book  in  the  Portuguese  language. 

We  charge  a  nominal  price  merely  to  help  pay  postage 
and  to  keep  curiosity  seekers  and  others  not  directly  inter- 
ested from  answering  our  advertisements. 

We  do  not  make  silos  of  any  description. 

In  describing  our  machines  we  have  endeavored  to 
give  in  condensed  form  such  information  as  would  enable 
beginners  and  others  interested  to  form  an  estimate  of 
what  their  cutting  equipment  would  cost,  and  if  the  reader 
contemplates  the  purchase  of  an  ensilage  cutter,  we  ask 
that  the  merits  of  the  "Ohio"  be  investigated.  We  solicit 
your  inquiries  regarding  cutting  outfits  and  shall  be  glad 
to  supply  latest  catalog  upon  application. 

Respectfully, 
THE  SILVER  MANUFACTURING  CO. 


239 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY, 
BERKELEY 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

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to  $1.00  per  volume  after  the  sixth  day.  Books  not  in 
demand  may  be  renewed  if  application  is  made  before 
expiration  of  loan  period. 


MAS  15  192 


20m-ll,'20 


HO-tvj  7 


27220 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


